Comprehensive biotechnology Vol. 2/ principles and practices in industry agriculture medicine and the environment Moo-Young,Murray

2.01. Introduction

2.02. Bioengineering at the Interface between Science and Society

Glossary

2.02.1. Introduction

2.02.2. The Impact of Science and Technology on Society

2.02.3. Roots and Development of Evolutionary Biology and of Genetics

2.02.4. Genetic Engineering as a Source of Genetic Variants

2.02.5. Molecular Mechanisms and Natural Strategies of Spontaneous Genetic Variation

2.02.6. High Similarity between Natural Biological Evolution and the Contribution of Genetic Engineering to Biological Evolution

2.02.7. Risk Evaluation of Evolutionary Processes

2.02.8. Prospects of Bioengineering

2.02.9. Public Perception of Genetics, Biological Evolution, and Bioengineering

2.02.10. Call for Sustainability of Cultural Developments

2.03. Cellular Systems

Glossary

2.03.1. Introduction

2.03.2. Bacteria

2.03.3. Fungi

2.03.4. Plant Cells

2.03.5. Animal Cells

2.03.6. Human Stem Cells

2.03.7. Artificial Cells

2.04. Cell Growth Dynamics

Glossary

2.04.1. Introduction

2.04.2. Models of Cells in Submerged Culture

2.04.3. Models of Cells in Multiphase Fermentor

2.05. Reaction Kinetics and Stoichiometry

Glossary

2.05.1. Introduction

2.05.2. Enzyme Kinetics

2.05.3. Factors Affecting Reaction Kinetics

2.05.4. Biochemical Reaction Rate Related to Cellular Systems

2.05.5. Stoichiometry

2.06. Bioreactor Fluid Dynamics

Glossary

2.06.1. Introduction

2.06.2. Mixing

2.06.3. Residence Time Measurements of the Gas Flow

2.06.4. Flow around Single Bubbles

2.06.5. Flow around Impeller Blades

2.06.6. Oxygen Mass Transfer

2.06.7. Flow Patterns in Stirred Tanks

2.06.8. Flow Patterns in Bubble Columns

2.06.9. Take-Home Messages

2.07. Mixing in Bioreactor Vessels

Glossary

2.07.1. Introduction

2.07.2. Characterization of Mixing

2.07.3. Mixing Models

2.07.4. Experimental Verification

2.07.5. The Airlift

2.07.6. Comparison of the Reactor Types

2.07.7. Gas-Phase Mixing

2.07.8. The Meaning of Mixing

2.07.9. Conclusions

2.08. Genetic Engineering

Glossary

2.08.1. Introduction to Genetic Engineering

2.08.2. Molecular Cloning and Recombinant DNA Technology

2.08.3. Molecular Manipulations

2.08.4. Cellular Manipulations

2.09. Bio-Feedstocks

Glossary

2.09.1. Common Feedstocks

2.09.2. Lignocellulose

2.09.3. Use of Perennial Grasses

2.10. Substrate Hydrolysis

Glossary

2.10.1. Introduction

2.10.2. Substrate for Hydrolysis

2.10.3. Physical Methods for Hydrolysis

2.10.4. Chemical Methods for Hydrolysis

2.10.5. Enzymatic Hydrolysis

2.10.6. Concluding Remarks

2.11. Medium Formulation and Development

Glossary

2.11.1. Introduction

2.11.2. Medium Formulation

2.11.3. Medium Optimization

2.11.4. Genetic Algorithms

2.11.5. Platforms for Medium Development

2.12. Sterilization in Biotechnology

Nomenclature

2.12.1. Introduction

2.12.2. Sterilization of Gases

2.12.3. Sterilization of Liquids

2.12.4. Sterilization of Small Equipment

2.12.5. Sterilization of Large Equipment

2.12.6. Validation of Sterilization

2.12.7. Conclusions

2.13. Inoculum Preparation

Glossary

Acknowledgments

2.13.1. Introduction

2.13.2. Criteria for Inoculum Preparation for Fermentation Process

2.13.3. Inoculum Development Process for Fermentation

2.13.4. Monitoring Inoculum Development

2.13.5. Transfer of Inoculum to the Fermentor Vessel or Scale-Up Process

2.13.6. Inoculum Preparation for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing

2.13.7. Measurement of Bacteria and Inoculum Preparation

2.13.8. Inoculum Preparation for Viral Cultures

2.13.9. Inoculum Preparation for Mammalian Cell Culture

2.13.10. Inoculum for Immunization

2.13.11. Conclusion

2.14. Bioreactor Engineering

Glossary

Acknowledgment

2.14.1. Introduction

2.14.2. Design and Types of Bioreactors

2.14.3. Effects of Process Parameters on Biological Performances

2.14.4. Bioreactor Operation Strategy

2.14.5. Industrial Applications of Bioreactors

2.14.6. Trends in Bioreactor Engineering

2.15. Stirred Tank Bioreactors

Glossary

2.15.1. Introduction

2.15.2. Mass and Energy Balances

2.15.3. Kinetic Models

2.15.4. Case in Study: Xanthan Gum Production

2.16. Airlift Bioreactors

Glossary

2.16.1. Introduction

2.16.2. Reactor Configurations

2.16.3. Power Input

2.16.4. Gas–Liquid Hydrodynamics

2.16.5. Mass Transfer

2.16.6. Heat Transfer

2.16.7. Mixing

2.16.8. Applications

2.16.9. Conclusions

2.17. Shake-Flask Bioreactors

Glossary

2.17.1. Introduction

2.17.2. Specific Power Input in Shake Flasks

2.17.3. Out-of-Phase Phenomena in Shake Flasks

2.17.4. Maximum Energy Dissipation Rate in Shake Flasks

2.17.5. Gas/Liquid Mass Transfer in Shake Flasks

2.17.6. Baffled Shake Flasks

2.17.7. Use of Engineering Parameters for Scale-Up from Shake Flask to Stirred-Tank Reactor

2.17.8. Fed-Batch and Continuous Cultures in Shake Flasks

2.17.9. Online Measuring Techniques in Shake Flasks

2.18. Photobioreactors – Models of Photosynthesis and Related Effects

Glossary

2.18.1. Introduction

2.18.2. The P–I Curve

2.18.3. Mathematical Representation of Photosynthesis

2.18.4. Modeling and Interpretation of Irradiance

2.18.5. The Kinetic Model

2.18.6. Modeling Photoacclimation

2.18.7. Photosynthesis in the Bioreactor

2.18.8. Simulated Illumination–Darkness Cycles

2.18.9. Experimental Evaluation of Illumination–Darkness Cycles

2.18.10. Conclusions

2.19. Disposable Bioreactors

Glossary

2.19.1. Introduction

2.19.2. Types of Single-Use Bioreactors with Disposable Bags

2.19.3. Conclusions

2.20. Membrane Bioreactors

Glossary

2.20.1. Introduction

2.20.2. Basic Concepts in Membrane Bioreactors

2.20.3. Membrane Bioreactors for Production and Separation of Bioactive Molecules

2.20.4. Membrane Bioreactors for Bioartificial Organs and Engineered-Tissue Culture

2.20.5. Conclusions

2.21. Microbioreactors

Glossary

2.21.1. Introduction

2.21.2. Microfluidic Devices

2.21.3. Microbioreactors for Cell Culturing

2.21.4. Enzymatic Microreactors

2.21.5. Future Perspectives of Bioreactor Miniaturization

2.22. Biofilters

Glossary

2.22.1. Introduction

2.22.2. Types of Biofilters

2.22.3. Filter Media

2.22.4. Microorganisms

2.22.5. Factors Affecting BF Performance

2.22.6. Design

2.23. Enzyme Bioreactors

Glossary

2.23.1. Introduction

2.23.2. Forms of Enzymes Used in Enzyme Reactors

2.23.3. Enzyme Reactors

2.23.4. Design and Choice of Enzyme Reactors

2.23.5. Novel Enzyme Reactors

2.24. Immobilized Cell Bioreactors

Glossary

2.24.1. Introduction

2.24.2. Immobilization of Microbial Cells

2.24.3. Immobilized Cell Bioreactors: Configuration and Design Characteristics

2.24.4. Mass Transfer and Biokinetics in Immobilized Cell Bioreactors

2.24.5. Merits of Immobilized Cell Bioreactors

2.24.6. Potential Drawbacks

2.24.7. Concluding Remarks

2.25. Bioreactors for Solid-State Fermentation

Glossary

2.25.1. Introduction

2.25.2. Classification of SSF Bioreactors and Basic Principles of Operation

2.25.3. Tray Bioreactors

2.25.4. Packed-Bed Bioreactors

2.25.5. Rotating-Drum and Stirred-Drum Bioreactors

2.25.6. Forcefully Aerated Agitated Bioreactors

2.25.7. Challenges Related to Changes Provoked by Microbial Growth

2.25.8. Other Considerations

2.25.9. Conclusion

2.26. Bioreactors for Plant Cell Culture

Glossary

2.26.1. Introduction

2.26.2. General Aspects of Plant Cells

2.26.3. Various Types of Reactors for Plant Cell Culture

2.26.4. Operation of Plant Cell Reactors

2.26.5. Industrial Applications and Outlook for the Future

2.26.6. Summary

2.27. Bioreactors for Animal Cell Cultures

Glossary

2.27.1. Introduction

2.27.2. Bioreactor Design

2.27.3. Bioreactors for High Cell Density Cultures

2.27.4. Automation of Cell Processing toward Clinical Application

2.27.5. Concluding Remarks

2.28. Bioreactors for Tissue Engineering

Glossary

Acknowledgments

2.28.1. Introduction

2.28.2. Engineering Concepts in Tissue Mass Growth

2.28.3. Reactor Designs for Tissue Engineering

2.28.4. Noninvasive and Nondestructive Imaging Techniques to Monitor Bioreactor Tissue Cultures

2.28.5. Conclusions

2.29. Recombinant Technology

Glossary

2.29.1. Introduction

2.29.2. Mammalian Expression Vectors

2.29.3. Nonviral Gene Delivery

2.29.4. Cells

2.29.5. Host Cell Engineering

2.29.6. Generation of Recombinant Cell Lines

2.29.7. Transient Gene Expression

2.29.8. Regulatory Issues

2.30. Metabolic Regulation Analysis and Metabolic Engineering

Glossary

2.30.1. Introduction

2.30.2. Metabolic Engineering Practice

2.30.3. The Effect of Single-Gene Knockouts on the Metabolism

2.30.4. Global Regulators in Relation to the Cultural Environment

2.30.5. The Systems Biology Approach

2.30.6. Conclusion

2.31. Proteomics, Protein Engineering

Glossary

2.31.1. Introduction

2.31.2. Mass Spectrometry-Based Proteome Profiling Techniques

2.31.3. Current Advances in Protein Identification: Online and Microfluidic Proteomic Systems

2.31.4. Current Challenges in Proteomics

2.32. Heterologous Protein Expression

Glossary

2.32.1. Introduction

2.32.2. Heterologous Protein Expression in Bacterial Cultures

2.32.3. Heterologous Protein Expression in Yeast Culture

2.32.4. Heterologous Protein Expression in Insect Cell Culture

2.32.5. Heterologous Protein Expression in Mammalian Cell culture

2.32.6. Heterologous Protein Expression in Plant Cell Culture

2.32.7. Heterologous Protein Expression in Algal Cell Culture

2.32.8. Heterologous Protein Expression in Moss Culture

2.32.9. Heterologous Protein Expression in Cell-Free Systems

2.32.10. Summary and Future Directions

2.33. Biotransformations

Glossary

2.33.1. Introduction

2.33.2. Enzymes versus Whole Cells

2.33.3. Extremophiles as a Source of New Enzymes

2.33.4. Biotransformations as a Source of Chiral Compounds

2.33.5. Types of Reaction Systems

2.33.6. Industrial Processes – Overview on Present and Prospective Trends

2.34. Immobilized Enzymes

Glossary

2.34.1. Introduction

2.34.2. What Are Immobilized Enzymes?

2.34.3. Classification of Immobilized Enzymes

2.34.4. Approaches toward Robust Immobilized Enzymes

2.34.5. Engineering the Immobilized Enzymes

2.34.6. Prospectives and Future Developments

2.35. Immobilization Technology

Glossary

2.35.1. Introduction

2.35.2. Strategies for Cell Immobilization

2.35.3. Products Suitable for Immobilized Cells

2.35.4. Immobilized-Cell Bioreactors

2.35.5. Conclusions

2.36. Immobilized Viable Cell Biocatalysts

Glossary

2.36.1. Introduction: Development and Main Application Fields of Immobilized Cell Cultures

2.36.2. Original Motivation of Viable IC Technology

2.36.3. Current Data on IC Physiology

2.36.4. Proteomic Approach and Biofilm Phenotype

2.36.5. Conclusion

2.37. Fermentation Processes

Glossary

2.37.1. Introduction

2.37.2. Microbial Growth and Stoichiometry

2.37.3. Autocatalytic Nature of Microbial Growth

2.37.4. Cell Yields

2.37.5. Product Yields

2.38. Fed-Batch Fermentation – Design Strategies

Glossary

2.38.1. Introduction

2.38.2. Different Types of Fed-Batch Cultivations

2.38.3. Applications of Fed-Batch Cultivation

2.38.4. Control Techniques for Fed-Batch Fermentation

2.38.5. Design of Specific Fed-Batch Cultivation Strategies Using the Mathematical Model of the System

2.38.6. Model-Based Fed-Batch Cultivation Strategies

2.38.7. Parameters Used to Control the Fed-Batch Fermentations

2.38.8. Conclusion

2.39. Continuous Operation

Glossary

2.39.1. Introduction

2.39.2. Homogeneous System

2.39.3. Heterogeneous Systems

2.40. Multistage Continuous High Cell Density Culture

Glossary

2.40.1. Introduction

2.40.2. Historical Background

2.40.3. High Cell Density Culture

2.40.4. Multistage Continuous HCDC

2.40.5. Summary

2.41. Integrated Production and Separation

Glossary

2.41.1. Introduction

2.41.2. Integration Methodology for Reducing Process Step

2.41.3. Cross-Sectional Technologies through Integration Methodology

2.41.4. Separation Techniques for the Integration in Terms of Product Characteristics

2.41.5. Bioreactor Configuration for the Integration of Production and Separation

2.41.6. Techniques for ISPR

2.41.7. Process Integration by Biotechnology

2.41.8. Perspective for the Process Integration

2.42. Product Recovery

Glossary

2.42.1. Introduction

2.42.2. Historical Background

2.42.3. Modular Unit Operations in Downstream Processing

2.42.4. Integrated Unit Operations in Downstream Processing

2.42.5. Product Purification

2.42.6. Product Formulation and Stabilization

2.42.7. Conclusion

2.43. Membrane Systems and Technology

Glossary

2.43.1. Introduction

2.43.2. Membrane Materials

2.43.3. Membrane Configurations

2.43.4. Characterization of Membranes

2.43.5. Solute and Particle Deposition

2.43.6. Membrane Cleaning

2.43.7. Ultrafiltration and Microfiltration

2.43.8. Membrane Bioreactors

2.43.9. Membrane Chromatography

2.43.10. Membrane Contactors

2.43.11. Conclusion

2.44. Cell Disruption

Glossary

2.44.1. Introduction

2.44.2. Characteristics of the Microbial Cell Influencing Resistance to Disruption

2.44.3. Approaches to Microbial Cell Disruption

2.44.4. Large-Scale Cell Disruption Technologies

2.44.5. Laboratory-Scale, and Developing, Cell Disruption Technologies

2.44.6. Selective Product Release

2.44.7. Pretreatment to Augment Product Release

2.44.8. Integration of Biomass Formation and Product Release

2.44.9. Integration of Product Release and Product Recovery and Purification

2.44.10. Closing Remarks

2.45. Autolysis of Yeasts

Glossary

2.45.1. Introduction

2.45.2. Yeast Autolysis Mechanism

2.45.3. Yeast Autolysis Compounds

2.45.4. Conclusion

2.46. Precipitation and Crystallization

Glossary

Acknowledgments

2.46.1. Introduction

2.46.2. Solid–Liquid Equilibrium: Phase Diagrams

2.46.3. Modeling of Solid–Liquid Equilibrium

2.46.4. Crystallization of Proteins

2.46.5. Developing a Protein Crystallization Process

2.47. Adsorption and Chromatography

Glossary

2.47.1. Introduction

2.47.2. Molecular Interactions in Adsorption

2.47.3. Chromatographic Methods

2.47.4. Theoretical Aspects of Adsorption and Chromatography

2.47.5. Development of Adsorption and Chromatography

2.47.6. Conclusions

2.48. Modeling Chromatographic Separation

Glossary

2.48.1. Introduction

2.48.2. Theoretical Background

2.48.3. Models for Chromatography

2.48.4. Case Studies

2.48.5. Summary

2.49. Aqueous Two-Phase Systems

Glossary

2.49.1. Introduction

2.49.2. Theoretical Background

2.49.3. Application of ATPSs for the Recovery of Biological Products

2.49.4. Conclusions

2.50. Foam Separations

Glossary

2.50.1. Introduction

2.50.2. Applications of Foam Fractionation

2.50.3. Mechanism of Foam Fractionation

2.50.4. Design

2.50.5. Process Intensification

2.51. Drying

Glossary

2.51.1. Introduction

2.51.2. Applications

2.51.3. Traditional Drying Processes

2.51.4. Other Drying Technologies

2.51.5. Summary

2.52. Chiral Separations

Glossary

2.52.1. General Introduction

2.52.2. Crystallization

2.52.3. Chromatography

2.52.4. Capillary Electrophoresis

2.52.5. Liquid–Liquid Extraction

2.52.6. Membrane-Assisted Separations

2.52.7. Inclusion Distillation and Precipitation

2.53. Lab on a Chip – Future Technology for Characterizing Biotechnology Products

Glossary

Acknowledgments

2.53.1. Introduction

2.53.2. Technology

2.53.3. Components

2.53.4. Applications

2.53.5. Concluding Remarks

2.54. Protein Refolding/Renaturation

Glossary

2.54.1. Introduction

2.54.2. Inclusion Bodies

2.54.3. Isolation and Purification of Inclusion Bodies

2.54.4. Solubilization of Inclusion Bodies

2.54.5. Mechanism of Protein Aggregation

2.54.6. Renaturation of Denatured Protein

2.54.7. Concluding Remarks

2.55. Biogas Production

Glossary

2.55.1. Introduction

2.55.2. Advantages of the AD Processes

2.55.3. Microbiology of AD

2.55.4. Factors Affecting the AD Process

2.55.5. Types of Anaerobic Reactors

2.55.6. Effect of Operational and Environmental Variations on AD

2.55.7. Biogas Utilization

2.55.8. Biogas Upgrading Methods

2.55.9. Applications of AD Technology

2.56. Purification Process Design and the Influence of Product and Technology Platforms

Glossary

2.56.1. Introduction

2.56.2. Impurities

2.56.3. Purification Unit Operations

2.56.4. Purification Process Flow-Sheet Organization and Design

2.56.5. Processing Platforms – Examples and Characteristics

2.56.6. Conclusions

2.57. The Proportion of Downstream Costs in Fermentative Production Processes

Glossary

2.57.1. Introduction

2.57.2. Overview of literature data

2.57.3. Conclusions

2.58. Biorefinery Engineering

Glossary

Acknowledgments

2.58.1. Introduction

2.58.2. Feedstock Availability

2.58.3. Platform of Bioprocess Technologies

2.58.4. Examples of Current Improvements of Key Biorefinery Processes

2.58.5. Prospect

2.59. Instrumentation and Analytical Methods

2.59.1. Introduction

2.59.2. Physical Process Parameters

2.59.3. Cell Mass Measurements

2.59.4. Analysis of Substrates and Products

2.59.5. Miscellaneous Techniques

2.59.6. Conclusions and Remarks

2.60. Life Cycle Assessment in Biotechnology

Glossary

2.60.1. Introduction

2.60.2. The Methodology of LCA

2.60.3. LCA: Utility and Limitations

2.60.4. Application of LCA in Food Biotechnology

2.60.5. Application of LCA in Pharmaceutical Biotechnology

2.60.6. Application of LCA in Biopolymers

2.60.7. Application of LCA in Biofuels

2.60.8. Application of LCA in Biodegradable Waste Management

2.60.9. Some New Tendencies

2.61. Metabolic Control

Glossary

Acknowledgments

2.61.1. Introduction

2.61.2. Regulation of Biological Systems

2.61.3. Control of Biological Systems

2.61.4. Network Rigidity

2.61.5. Biochemical Systems Theory

2.61.6. Metabolic Control Analysis

2.61.7. Determination of the Flux Control Coefficients

2.61.8. In Vivo Applications

2.61.9. Conclusion

2.62. Fuzzy Control of Bioprocess

Glossary

2.62.1. Direct Inference of Process Variables

2.62.2. Determination of Process Variables Based on Identification of Culture Phase

2.62.3. Combination of Fuzzy Inference with Other Methods

2.62.4. Conclusion

2.63. Online Control Strategies

Glossary

Acknowledgment

2.63.1. Introduction

2.63.2. Current Practice of Bioprocess Control

2.63.3. Advanced Process Control Strategies

2.63.4. Concluding Remarks

2.64. Process Optimization

Glossary

2.64.1. Introduction

2.64.2. Review of the Most Relevant Optimization Techniques

2.64.3. Case Studies

2.64.4. Conclusions

2.65. Micro-Biochemical Engineering

Glossary

Acknowledgments

2.65.1. Introduction

2.65.2. Overview of Micro-Biochemical Engineering

2.65.3. Examples of Micro-Biochemical Engineering

2.65.4. Future Challenges in Applying Micro-Biochemical Engineering

2.65.5. Conclusions

2.66. Sustainability

Glossary

2.66.1. Introduction

2.66.2. About Sustainability

2.66.3. Spatial and Temporal Dimensions of Sustainability

2.66.4. Challenges of Sustainability

2.66.5. Indicators of Sustainability

2.66.6. Keys to Sustainable Development in Practice

2.66.7. Biotechnology and Sustainability

2.66.8. Renewable Resources and Energy

2.66.9. Concluding Remarks

2.67. Nanostructured Biocatalysts

Glossary

2.67.1. Introduction

2.67.2. Nonaqueous Enzymatic Catalysis

2.67.3. Enzymes in Nanostructures

2.67.4. Preparation of Enzyme Nanogels

2.67.5. Molecular Fundamentals of Enzyme Nanogels

2.67.6. Potential Applications of Enzyme Nanogels as Biocatalysts

2.67.7. Summary

2.68. Aseptic Operations

Glossary

2.68.1. Introduction

2.68.2. Design and Procedural Approaches to Minimizing Contamination

2.68.3. Fermentation/Cell Culture Considerations

2.68.4. Considerations for Purification and Formulation/Fill

2.68.5. Validation and Verification

2.68.6. Sterility Analysis and Culture Purity

2.68.7. Summary

2.69. Oxygen Mass Transfer in Bioreactors

Glossary

2.69.1. Introduction

2.69.2. Effect of Various Parameters on Oxygen Mass Transfer

2.69.3. Conclusions

2.70. Cavitation in Biotechnology

Glossary

2.70.1. Introduction

2.70.2. Reactor Designs

2.70.3. Different Applications of Cavitation

2.70.3.7. Concluding Remarks

2.71. Flow Cytometry

Glossary

2.71.1. Introduction

2.71.2. Description of the FC Technique

2.71.3. Cell Viability and Functionality

2.71.4. Applications to Industrial Bioprocesses

2.71.5. Monitoring and Control of Biotransformations

2.71.6. Theoretical Applications: Kinetic Modeling

2.71.7. Devices of Practical Use and Automation of FC Equipments

2.71.8. Conclusions

2.72. Cleaning in Place

Glossary

2.72.1. Introduction

2.72.2. Hygiene Agents

2.72.3. Overview of CIP Systems

2.72.4. Cleaning Principles

2.72.5. Other Technological Aspects

2.73. Ionic Liquids

Glossary

2.73.1. Introduction

2.73.2. Applications of Enzymes in Ionic Liquids

2.73.3. Environmental Impact of Ionic Liquids

2.73.4. Conclusions

2.74. Supercritical Fluids

Glossary

2.74.1. Introduction

2.74.2. Pure Substances as Supercritical Fluids

2.74.3. Properties of Supercritical Fluids

2.74.4. Modifiers

2.74.5. Solubility in a Supercritical Fluid

2.74.6. Calculations to Predict Whether a Modifier Is Required

2.74.7. Supercritical Fluid Extraction

2.74.8. Supercritical Fluid Chromatography

2.74.9. Supercritical Fluid Particle Engineering

2.74.10. Supercritical Fluid Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine

2.74.11. Supercritical Fluids as Alternative Enzymatic Reaction Solvents

2.74.12. Sterilization Using SF-CO2

2.74.13. Critical Point Drying of Biological Samples

2.74.14. Summary

2.75. Computational Fluid Dynamics

Glossary

Acknowledgment

2.75.1. Introduction

2.75.2. Fundamentals

2.75.3. Single-Phase Flow Simulations

2.75.4. Multiphase Flow Simulations

2.75.5. CFD in Biochemical Engineering

2.75.6. Conclusions and Future Perspectives