Research methodology: A step-by step guide beginners / Ranjit Kumar

1 Research: a way of thinking
Research: a way of thinking
Research: an integral part of your professional practice
Research: a way to gather evidence for your practice
Applications of research in practice development and policy formulation
Research: what does it mean?
The research process: characteristics and requirements
Types of research
Application perspective
Objectives perspective
Mode of enquiry perspective
The mixed/multiple methods approach
Introduction
Defining the approach
Rationale underpinmng the approach
When to use the approach
Ways of mixing methods
Advantages and disadvantages
Considerations to be kept in mind
Situations in which the approach can be used
Paradigms of research
Summary
2 The research process: a quick glance
The research process: an eight-step model
A: Deciding what to research
Step I; Formulating a research problem
B: Planning how to conduct the study
Step II: Conceptualising a research design
Step III: Constructing an instrument for data collection
Step IV: Selecting a sample
Step V: Writing a research proposal
C: Conducting a research study
Step VI: Collecting data
Step VII: Processing and displaying data ^
Step VIII: Writing a research report
Summary
STEP I FORMULATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM
^ Reviewing the Uterature
The place of the literature review in research
Bringing clarity and focvis to your research problem
Improving your research methodology
Broadening your knowledge base in your research area
ContextuaUsing your findings
Difference between a literature review and a summary of the literature
How to review the Uterature
Searching for the existing Uterature
Reviewing the selected Uterature
Developing a theoretical framework
Developing a conceptual framework
Writing about the Uterature reviewed
Summary
4 Formulating a research problem
The research problem
The importance of formulating a research problem
Sources of research problems
Considerations in selecting a research problem
Steps in formulating a research problem
The formulation of research objectives
The study population
EstabUshing operational definitions
Formulating a research problem in quaUtative research
Summary
CONTENTS
5 Identifying variables
What is a variable?
The difference between a concept and a variable
Converting concepts into variables
Types of variable
From the viewpoint of causal relationship
From the viewpoint of the study design
From the viewpoint of the unit of measurement
Types of measurement scale
The nominal or classificatory scale
The ordinal or ranking scale
The interval scale
The ratio scale
Summary
6 Constructing hypotheses
The definition of a hypothesis
The functions of a hj^othesis
The testing of a hypothesis
The characteristics of a hypothesis
Types of hypothesis
Errors in testing a hypothesis
Hypotheses in qualitative research
Summaiy
Developing a research project: a set of exercises for beginners
Exercise 1: Formulation of a research problem
STEP 11 CONCEPTUALISING A RESEARCH DESIGN
7 The research design
What is a research design?
The functions of a research design
The theory of causality and the research design
Summary
8 Selecting a study design
Differences between quantitative and qualitative study designs
Study designs in quantitative research
Study designs based on the munber of contacts
Study designs based on the reference period
Study designs based on the nature of the investigation
Other designs commonly used in quantitative research
Study designs in qualitative research
Case study
Oral history
^ Focus groups/group interviews
Participant observation
Holistic research
Community discussion forums
Reflective journal log
Other commonly used philosophy-guided designs
Action research
Feminist research
Participatory research and collaborative enquiry
Summary
Exercise II: Conceptualising a study design
STEP III CONSTRUCTING AN INSTRUMENT FOR
DATA COLLECTION
9 Selecting a method of data collection
Differences in the methods of data collection in quantitative, qualitative
and mixed methods research
Major approaches to information gathering
Collecting data using primary sources
Observation
The interview
The questionnaire
Constructing a research instrument in quantitative research
Asking personal and sensitive questions
The order of questions
Pre-testing a research instrument
Prerequisites for data collection
Methods of data collection in qualitative research
Unstructured interviews
Observation
Secondary sources
Constructing a research instrument in quahtative research
Collecting data using secondary sources
Problems with data from secondary sources
Summary
CONTENTS
10 Collecting data using attitudinal scales
Measurement of attitudes in quantitative and qualitative
research
Attitudinal scales in quantitative research
Functions of attitudinal scales
Difficulties in developing an attitudinal scale
Types of attitudinal scale
The summated rating or Likert scale
The equal-appearing interval or Thurstone scale
The cumulative or Guttman scale
Attitudinal scales and measurement scales
Attitudes and qualitative research
Summary
11 EstabUshing the validity and reliability of a research
instrument
The concept of vaUdity
Types of vaUdity in quantitative researc
Face and content validity
Concurrent and predictive vaUdity
Construct vaUdity
The concept of reUabiUty
Pactore affecting the reUabiUty of a research imtmment
Methods of determining the rehabihty of an instrument in
quantitative research
External consistency proce ures
Internal consistency procedures
Validity and reliabUity in quaUtative research
Summary
Exercise III: DeveloptaS ^
STEP IV selecting A SAMEEE
12 Selecting a sample
, a_rreen sampling in quantitative and quaUtative
The differences betw
research Sailing in quanti^™^^
The concept ot
research
Sampling termuml"®' ^
Principles of sampling
Factors affecting the inferences drawn from a sample
Aims in selecting a sample
Types of sampling
The calculation of sample size
Sampling in qualitative research
Tlie concept of saturation point in qualitative research
Summary
Exercising IV: Selecting a sample
STEP V WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
13 Writing a research proposal
The research proposal in quantitative and qualitative
research
Contents of a research proposal
Preamble/introduction
'The research problem
Objectives of the study
Hypotheses to be tested
Study design
The setting
Measurement procedures
Ethical issues
• Sampling
Analysis of data
Structure of the report
Problems and limitations
Appendix
Work schedule
Budget
Summary
Exercise V: Writing a research proposal
STEP VI COLLECTING DATA
14 Considering ethical issues in data collection
Ethics: the concept
Stakeholders in research
Ethical issues to consider concerning research
participants
Collecting information
Seeking informed consent
Providing incentives
Seeking sensitive information
The possibility of causing harm to participants
Maintaining confidentiahty
Ethical issues to consider relating to the researcher
Avoiding bias
Provision or deprivation of a treatment
Using inappropriate research methodology
Incorrect reporting
Inappropriate use of information
Ethical issues regarding the sponsoring organisation
Restrictions imposed by the sponsoripg organisation
The misuse of information
Ethical issues in collecting data from secondary sources
Summary
STEP VII PROCESSING AND DISPLAYING DATA
15 Processing data
Data processing in quantitative studies
Editing
Coding
Developing a frame of analysis
Analysing quantitative data manually
Data processing in qualitative stuies
Content analysis in qualitative research - an example
Data analysis in mixed methods studies
The role of statistics and computers in research
Summary
16 Displaying data
Methods of communicating and displaying analysed data
Text
Tables
Graphs
Statistical Measiu-es
Summary
CONT
STEP VIII WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT
17 Writing a research report
Writing a research report
Developing a draft outline
Writing about variables
Referencing
Writing a bibliography
Summary