The structure of learning/
R. Allen Gardner Beatrix T. Gardner
- New York: Psychology Press, 2014.
- 373 p.
1 Introduction Discovery Versus Understanding Belief Versus Evidence Operational Definition Facial Vision Dependent Variable Independent Variable Experimental Control Introspection Intervening Variable Experiment Versus Correlation Adaptive Versus Maladaptive Ethological Experiments Color Vision Arbitrary and Obligatory Obligatory Patterns Observation and Experiment Experimental Psychology Ethology of the Skinner Box Plan of This Book 2 Classical Conditioning Typical Procedures Salivation Leg Withdrawal Eyeblink Knee Jerk Basic Terms Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Orienting Response (OR) Unconditioned Response (UCR) Conditioned Response (CR) Response Measures Acquisition Extinction Resistance to Extinction Spontaneous Recovery Habituation Sensitization Relationship Between Conditioned and Unconditioned Responses Conditioned Response as a Fractional Response Conditioned Response as a Prepatory Response Generality Experimental Subjects Unconditioned Responses Conditioned Stimuli Arbitrary Stimuli Ethology of Stimulus/Response Compatibility Tinne and Sequence Interstimulus Interval (ISI) Length of the Interstimulus Interval Conditioned Emotional Response Social Conditioning Imprinting Conditioned Mobbing Chemical Alarms Emotional Words Summary 3 Instrumental Conditioning Typical Procedures Reward Escape Avoidance Punishment Basic Terms Unconditioned Stimulus Response Measures Response Variability Acquisition Extinction Resistance to Extinction Spontaneous Recovery Generality Maze Learning Skinner Box Schedules Fixed Interval Variable Interval Fixed Ratio Variable Ratio Maintenance Versus Conditioning Time Schedules Discrimination Successive Procedure Simultaneous Procedure Multiple Stimuli and Responses Reinforcement and Inhibition Versus Differential Response Summary 4 Mechanisms of Conditioning Theory and Experiment Stimuli and Responses Four Basic Mechanisms Common Sense Parsimony Implications S-S Contiguity Fractional Anticipatory Response Length of the Jnterstimulus Interval Direction of the Interstimulus Interval S-S* Contingency S-R-S* Contingency Role of S* Higher-Order Conditioning Preconditioning A Hybrid Paradigm A Misnomer S-R Contiguity Sign Stimuli Action Patterns Temporal Patterns Feedback Systems Feed Forward Systems Anticipatory Responses Backward Conditioning Rhythmic Patterns Delay Conditioning S-R Sequences Contrast With Stimulus Substitution Summary 5 Reinforcement Versus Expectancy Response Contingent Reinforcement S-R-S* Contingency Goal Gradient Learning the Shorter Path to a Goal Order of Elimination of Blinds Speed-of-Locomotion Gradient Cognitive Expectancy Unrewarded Trials Free Exploration Irrelevant Drive Summary 6 Sequence and Anticipation Latent Extinction Segments of a T-Maze Segments of a Goal Box Drive Discrimination Conditioned Rejection 7 Feed Forward Versus Feed Backward Operational Definition Defining Secondary Reward Magazine Clicks New Learning Partial Reward Interstimulus Interval Summary S-R Contiguity S-R Chains in a Skinner Box Preliminary Training S-R-f Discriminative Stimulus: S'' Versus S"" Feed Forward Versus Feed Backward Conditioned Eating Magazine Click as S^ Token Rewards for Chimpanzees Money Feeds Forward 8 Continguity Versus Contingency Shaping and Autoshaping Superstition Earning Versus Free Loading Avoiding Food Constraints and Contingency Yoked Control Experimental Design Subject Selection Readiness Conclusion Learning Without Hedonism Bioassay Inhibition and Competition Feedback Versus Sign Stimuli Autonomous Robots Top-Down Robots Bottom-Up Robots Building From the Bottom Up Bottom-Up Learning Summary 9 Appetite, Aversion, and Conflict Motive and Drive Irritability How Many Drives? Evocative Stimuli Selection Summary Aversion defensive Aggression Suppression and Induction Rhythmic Patterns Avoidance Compatibility Operant Avoidance Two IVayj to Abolish Contingency Earning Pain Summary Conflict Homeostasis Robots in Conflict Fuzzy Control Fuzzy Logic Parallel Processing Queuing Control Problem Fuzzy Solution Biological and Industrial Priorities Summary 10 Excitation, Inhibition, and Competition Hull's Excitation and Inhibition Two Kinds of Inhibition Massed and Distributed Practice Resistance To Extinction Overtraining Summary Competing Responses Considering More Than One Response Two-Choice Situations Competition and Contingency Summary 11 Reward Versus Nonreward Operant Procedure Partial Reward During Acquisition Extinction After Partial Reward Amount of Practice Discrete Trials Generality Discrimination Frustration What is Wrong With 100% Reward? Anticipatory Goal Responses Anticipatory Errors Summary 12 Places, Paths, and Bearings Place Learning Versus Response Learning Spontaneous Alteration Intramaze Stimuli Versus Extramaze Stimuli Odor Trails Compass Bearing Navigation Radial Arm Maze Morris Water Maze Caching Food Summary 13 Transfer Stimulus Generalization Basic Phenomenon Implications Peak Shift Transposition Spence's Model Psychophysics Sign Stimuli Dimensional Stimuli Neural Networks Habits, Hypotheses, and Strategies Habits Versus Hypotheses Overtraining and Reversal Learning Sets Problem Solving Versus Habit Comparative Intelligence and Intelligent Compaiisons Summary 14 Teaching Sign Language to Chimpanzees Cross-Fostering Sibling Species Sign Language Sign Language Only Ethological Considerations Chimpanzee Subjects Teaching Methods Contrast With Operant Conditioning Failure of Extrinsic Incentives 301 Uses of the Signs 302 Phrases 311 Word-for-Sign Translation Creativity Development Modular Approaches Modular Semantics Modular Conversation A Robust Phenomenon Replication Loulis 15 Concepts and Communications Communication and Information Vocabulary Tests Objectives Teaching and Testing Rewards Items and Exemplars Photography Novelty Target Signs Test Results Chance Expectancy Productive Tests Versus Forced Choices Signs of ASL Concepts Communication and Language Duality of Patterning Ethology and Operational Definition