TY - BOOK AU - Manahan, Stanley E. TI - Fundamentals of environmental and toxicological chemistry: sustainable science SN - 9781466553163 U1 - 540 PY - 2013/// CY - Boca Raton PB - CRC Press KW - Environmental chemistry N1 - ch. 1 Environmental Chemistry and the Five Spheres of the Environment -- 1.1.What Is Environmental Chemistry? -- 1.2.Environmental Relationships in Environmental Chemistry -- 1.3.Environmental Spheres and Biogeochemical Cycles -- 1.4.Earth's Natural Capital -- 1.5.Environmental Chemistry and Green Chemistry -- 1.6.As We Enter into the Anthropocene -- Questions and Problems -- Literature Cited -- Supplementary References -- ch. 2 Fundamentals of Biochemistry and Toxicological Chemistry -- 2.1.Life Chemical Processes -- 2.2.Biochemistry and the Cell -- 2.3.Carbohydrates -- 2.4.Proteins -- 2.5.Lipids: Fats, Oils, and Hormones -- 2.6.Nucleic Acids -- 2.7.Enzymes -- 2.7.1.Effects of Toxic Substances on Enzymes -- 2.8.Biochemical Processes in Metabolism -- 2.8.1.Energy-Yielding and Processing Processes -- 2.9.Toxic Substances, Toxicology, and Toxicological Chemistry -- 2.9.1.Exposure to Toxic Substances -- 2.9.2.Distribution of Toxic Substances -- 2.9.3.Dose-Response Relationship -- 2.9.4.Toxicities -- 2.10.Toxicological Chemistry -- 2.10.1.Reactions of Toxicants and Protoxicants in Living Systems -- 2.11.Kinetic Phase of Xenobiotic Metabolism -- 2.12.Dynamic Phase of Toxicant Action -- 2.13.Mutagenesis and Carcinogenesis -- 2.13.1.Mutations from Chemical Exposure -- 2.13.2.Carcinogenesis -- 2.14.Developmental Effects and Teratogenesis -- 2.15.Toxic Effects on the Immune System -- 2.16.Damage to the Endocrine System -- 2.17.Health Hazards of Toxic Substances -- 2.17.1.Health Risk Assessment -- 2.18.Structure-Activity Relationships in Toxicological Chemistry -- 2.19.Toxicological Chemistry and Ecotoxicology -- 2.19.1.Effects of Toxicants on Ecosystems -- 2.19.2.Biomarkers of Exposure to Toxic Substances -- 2.20.Toxic Agents That May Be Used in Terrorist Attacks -- Questions and Problems -- Literature Cited -- Supplementary References -- ch. 3 Environmental and Toxicological Chemistry of the Hydrosphere -- 3.1.H2O: Simple Formula, Remarkable Molecule -- 3.2.Hydrosphere -- 3.3.Occurrence of Water -- 3.3.1.Standing Bodies of Water -- 3.3.2.Flowing Water -- 3.3.3.Sedimentation by Flowing Water -- 3.3.4.Groundwater -- 3.4.Water Supply and Availability -- 3.5.Life and Its Influence on Environmental Chemistry in the Hydrosphere -- 3.5.1.Aquatic Organisms and Chemical Transitions in the Hydrosphere -- 3.5.2.Microbial Action on Organic Matter in the Hydrosphere -- 3.6.Environmental Chemistry of the Hydrosphere -- 3.7.Acid-Base Phenomena in the Hydrosphere -- 3.7.1.Carbon Dioxide in Water -- 3.8.Solubility and Phase Interactions -- 3.8.1.Gas Solubilities -- 3.8.2.Carbon Dioxide and Carbonate Species in Water -- 3.8.3.Sediments -- 3.8.4.Colloids in Water -- 3.9.Oxidation Reduction -- 3.9.1.pE and Toxicological Chemistry -- 3.10.Metal Ions in Water -- 3.10.1.Calcium and Hardness in Water -- 3.11.Complexation and Speciation of Metals -- 3.12.Toxicological Chemistry in the Hydrosphere -- 3.13.Chemical Interactions with Organisms in the Hydrosphere -- 3.14.Biodegradation in the Hydrosphere -- Questions and Problems -- Literature Cited -- Supplementary References -- ch. 4 Pollution of the Hydrosphere -- 4.1.Nature and Types of Water Pollutants -- 4.1.1.Markers of Water Pollution -- 4.2.Elemental Pollutants -- 4.3.Heavy Metals -- 4.3.1.Cadmium -- 4.3.2.Lead -- 4.3.3.Mercury -- 4.4.Metalloids -- 4.5.Organically Bound Metals -- 4.5.1.Organotin Compounds -- 4.6.Inorganic Species as Water Pollutants -- 4.6.1.Cyanide -- 4.6.2.Ammonia and Other Inorganic Water Pollutants -- 4.6.3.Asbestos in Water -- 4.7.Algal Nutrients and Eutrophication -- 4.8.Acidity, Alkalinity, and Salinity -- 4.9.Oxygen, Oxidants, and Reductants -- 4.10.Organic Pollutants -- 4.10.1.Sewage -- 4.10.2.Soaps and Detergents -- 4.10.3.Naturally Occurring Chlorinated and Brominated Compounds -- 4.10.4.Microbial Toxins -- 4.11.Pesticides in Water -- 4.11.1.Natural Product Insecticides, Pyrethrins, and Pyrethroids -- 4.11.2.DDT and Organochlorine Insecticides -- 4.11.3.Organophosphate Insecticides -- 4.11.4.Carbamates -- 4.11.5.Fungicides -- 4.11.6.Herbicides -- 4.11.7.By-Products of Pesticide Manufacture -- 4.12.Polychlorinated Biphenyls -- 4.13.Emerging Water Pollutants, Pharmaceuticals, and Household Wastes -- 4.13.1.Bactericides -- 4.13.2.Estrogenic Substances in Wastewater Effluents -- 4.13.3.Biorefractory Organic Pollutants -- 4.14.Radionuclides in the Aquatic Environment -- 4.15.Toxicological Chemistry and Water Pollution -- Questions and Problems -- Literature Cited -- Supplementary References -- ch. 5 Sustaining the Hydrosphere -- 5.1.More Important than Oil -- 5.2.Greening of Water: Purification before and after Use -- 5.2.1.Emerging Considerations in Water Treatment -- 5.3.Municipal Water Treatment -- 5.3.1.Contamination in Water Distribution Systems -- 5.4.Treatment of Water for Industrial Use -- 5.5.Wastewater Treatment -- 5.5.1.Industrial Wastewater Treatment -- 5.6.Removal of Solids -- 5.6.1.Dissolved Air Flotation -- 5.7.Removal of Calcium and Other Metals -- 5.7.1.Removal of Iron and Manganese -- 5.7.2.Removal of Heavy Metals -- 5.7.3.Arsenic Removal -- 5.8.Removal of Dissolved Organics -- 5.8.1.Removal of Herbicides -- 5.8.2.Removal of Taste, Odor, and Color -- 5.8.3.Photolysis -- 5.8.4.Sonolysis -- 5.9.Removal of Dissolved Inorganics -- 5.9.1.Ion Exchange -- 5.9.2.Phosphorus Removal -- 5.9.3.Nitrogen Removal -- 5.10.Membrane Processes and Reverse Osmosis for Water Purification -- 5.10.1.Reverse Osmosis -- 5.10.2.Electrodialysis -- 5.11.Water Disinfection -- 5.11.1.Pathogens Treated by Disinfection -- 5.11.2.Disinfection Agents -- 5.11.3.Disinfection with Chlorine and Chloramines -- 5.11.4.Chlorine Dioxide -- 5.11.5.Toxicities of Chlorine and Chlorine Dioxide -- 5.11.6.Green Ozone for Water Disinfection -- 5.11.7.Ozone Toxicity -- 5.11.8.Miscellaneous Disinfection Agents -- 5.12.Restoration of Wastewater Quality -- 5.12.1.Primary Wastewater Treatment -- 5.12.2.Secondary Waste Treatment by Biological Processes -- 5.12.3.Tertiary Waste Treatment -- 5.12.4.Physical-Chemical Treatment of Municipal Wastewater -- 5.13.Natural Water Purification Processes -- 5.13.1.Industrial Wastewater Treatment by Soil -- 5.14.Sludges and Residues from Water Treatment -- 5.15.Water, the Greenest Substance on Earth: Reuse and Recycling -- 5.16.Water Conservation -- 5.16.1.Rainwater Harvesting -- Questions and Problems -- Literature Cited -- Supplementary References -- ch. 6 Environmental and Toxicological Chemistry of the Atmosphere -- 6.1.Atmosphere: Air to Breathe and Much More -- 6.2.Regions of the Atmosphere -- 6.3.Atmospheric Composition -- 6.4.Natural Capital of the Atmosphere -- 6.5.Energy and Mass Transfer in the Atmosphere -- 6.6.Meteorology, Weather, and Climate -- 6.6.1.Global Weather -- 6.7.Atmospheric Inversions and Atmospheric Chemical Phenomena -- 6.8.Climate, Microclimate, and Microatmosphere -- 6.8.1.Human Modifications of the Atmosphere -- 6.8.2.Microclimate -- 6.8.3.Effects of Urbanization on Microclimate -- 6.8.4.Microatmosphere -- 6.9.Atmospheric Chemistry and Photochemical Reactions -- 6.9.1.Atmospheric Ions and the Ionosphere -- 6.10.Atmospheric Oxygen -- 6.10.1.Toxicological Chemistry of Oxygen -- 6.11.Atmospheric Nitrogen -- 6.12.Atmospheric Water -- 6.13.Atmospheric Particles -- 6.13.1.Physical Behavior of Atmospheric Particles -- 6.13.2.Atmospheric Chemical Reactions Involving Particles -- Questions and Problems -- Literature Cited -- Supplementary References -- ch. 7 Pollution of the Atmosphere -- 7.1.Pollution of the Atmosphere and Air Quality -- 7.2.Pollutant Particles in the Atmosphere -- 7.2.1.Physical and Chemical Processes for Particle Formation: Dispersion and Condensation Aerosols -- 7.2.2.Chemical Processes for Inorganic Particle Formation -- 7.2.3.Composition of Inorganic Particles -- 7.2.4.Fly Ash -- 7.2.5.Radioactivity in Atmospheric Particles -- 7.2.6.Organic Pollutant Particles in the Atmosphere -- 7.2.7.Effects of Atmospheric Pollutant Particles -- 7.2.8.Health Effects and Toxicology of Particles -- 7.2.9.Asian Brown Cloud: Climate and Health Effects -- 7.3.Inorganic Gas Pollutants -- 7.4.Nitrogen Oxide Air Pollutants -- 7.4.1.Toxic Effects of Nitrogen Oxides -- 7.5.Sulfur Dioxide Air Pollution -- 7.5.1.Toxic Effects of Sulfur Dioxide -- 7.5.2.Toxic Effects of Atmospheric Sulfuric Acid -- 7.6.Acid-Base Reactions in the Atmosphere and Acid Rain -- 7.7.Organic Air Pollutants -- 7.7.1.Organics in the Atmosphere from Natural Sources -- 7.7.2.Pollutant Hydrocarbons from the Anthrosphere -- 7.7.3.Nonhydrocarbon Organics in the Atmosphere -- 7.7.4.Organohalides -- 7.7.5.Toxicological Chemistry of Organohalides -- 7.7.6.Organosulfur Compounds -- 7.7.7.Organonitrogen Compounds -- 7.7.8.Toxicological Chemistry of Organonitrogen Compounds -- 7.8.Photochemical Smog -- 7.8.1.Harmful Effects of Smog -- 7.8.2.Toxic Effects of Smog and Its Constituents to Humans -- 7.9.Chlorofluorocarbons and Stratospheric Ozone Depletion -- 7.9.1.Chlorofluorocarbons and Stratospheric Ozone Depletion -- 7.9.2.Antarctic Ozone Hole -- 7.9.3.Nobel Prize in Environmental Chemistry -- 7.10.Indoor Air Pollution and the Microatmosphere -- Questions and Problems -- Literature Cited -- Supplementary References -- ch. 8 Sustaining the Atmosphere: Blue Skies for a Green Earth -- 8.1.Preserving the Atmosphere -- 8.1.1.Preservation of the Atmosphere's Natural Capital -- 8.2.Greatest Threat: Global Climate Warming -- 8.2.1.Increasing Temperature -- 8.2.2.Passing the Tipping Points -- 8.2.3.Loss of Ice Cover -- 8.2.4.Glaciers and Water Supply -- 8.2.5.Expansion of Subtropical Arid Regions and Drought -- 8.2.6.Some Other Effects of Global Climate Change -- 8.3.Dealing with Global Climate Change -- 8.3.1.Mitigation and Minimization of Greenhouse Gas Emissions -- 8.3.1.1.Less Carbon Dioxide from Internal Combustion Engines -- 8.3.2.Transportation Alternatives to the Internal Combustion Engine -- 8.3.3.Heating and Cooling -- 8.3.4.Carbon Capture Note continued: 8.3.5.Avoiding Fossil Fuels -- 8.3.6.Avoiding Greenhouse Gases Other than Carbon Dioxide -- 8.3.7.Economic and Political Measures -- 8.3.8.Counteracting Measures -- 8.3.9.Adaptation -- 8.3.10.Heat -- 8.3.11.Drought -- 8.3.12.Water Banking -- 8.4.Control of Particle Emissions -- 8.4.1.Particle Removal by Sedimentation and Inertia -- 8.4.2.Particle Filtration -- 8.4.3.Scrubbers -- 8.4.4.Electrostatic Precipitation -- 8.4.5.Where Does It All Go? -- 8.5.Control of Carbon Monoxide Emissions -- 8.6.Control of Nitrogen Oxide Emissions -- 8.7.Control of Sulfur Dioxide Emissions -- 8.8.Control of Hydrocarbon Emissions and Photochemical Smog -- 8.8.1.Compression-Fired Engines -- 8.8.2.Catalytic Converters for Exhaust Gas Control -- 8.8.3.Photochemical Smog and Vegetation -- 8.8.4.Preventing Smog with Green Chemistry -- 8.9.Biological Control of Air Pollution -- 8.9.1.Bioreactors for Air Pollutant Removal -- 8.9.2.Removing Air Pollution with Vegetation -- 8.10.Controlling Acid Rain -- 8.10.1.Dealing with Toxic and Other Adverse Effects of Acid Rain -- 8.11.Limiting Stratospheric Ozone Depletion -- Questions and Problems -- Literature Cited -- Supplementary References -- ch. 9 Environmental and Toxicological Chemistry of the Geosphere -- 9.1.Geosphere -- 9.1.1.Geosphere Related to the Other Environmental Spheres -- 9.1.2.Plate Tectonics -- 9.1.3.Rock Cycle -- 9.2.Chemical Composition of the Geosphere and Geochemistry -- 9.2.1.Biological Aspects of Weathering -- 9.3.Geosphere as a Source of Natural Capital -- 9.4.Environmental Hazards of the Geosphere -- 9.4.1.Volcanoes -- 9.4.2.Toxicological and Public Health Aspects of Volcanoes -- 9.4.3.Earthquakes -- 9.4.4.Toxicological and Public Health Aspects of Earthquakes -- 9.4.5.Surface Effects -- 9.4.6.Radon, a Toxic Gas from the Geosphere -- 9.5.Water in and on the Geosphere -- 9.5.1.Geospheric Water and Health Effects -- 9.6.Anthrospheric Influences on the Geosphere -- 9.7.Geosphere as a Waste Repository -- Questions and Problems -- Literature Cited -- Supplementary References -- ch. 10 Soil: A Critical Part of the Geosphere -- 10.1.Have You Thanked a Clod Today? -- 10.1.1.What Is Soil? -- 10.1.2.Inorganic Solids in Soil -- 10.1.3.Soil Organic Matter -- 10.1.4.Water in Soil and the Soil Solution -- 10.1.5.Chemical Exchange Processes in Soil -- 10.2.Plant Nutrients and Fertilizers in Soil -- 10.3.Soil and Plants Related to Wastes and Pollutants -- 10.4.Soil Loss: Desertification and Deforestation -- 10.5.Toxicological and Public Health Aspects of Soil -- 10.5.1.Toxicological Aspects of Soil Herbicides -- 10.6.Toxicological Considerations in Livestock Production -- Questions and Problems -- Literature Cited -- Supplementary References -- ch. 11 Sustaining the Geosphere -- 11.1.Managing the Geosphere for Sustainability -- 11.2.Sustaining the Geosphere in the Face of Natural Hazards -- 11.2.1.Vulnerable Coasts -- 11.2.2.Threat of Rising Sea Levels -- 11.3.Sustainable Development on the Geosphere's Surface -- 11.3.1.Site Evaluation -- 11.3.2.Kinds of Structures on the Geosphere -- 11.4.Digging in the Dirt -- 11.4.1.Subsurface Excavations -- 11.4.2.Green Underground Storage -- 11.4.3.Salt Dome Storage -- 11.5.Extraction of Materials from Earth -- 11.5.1.Environmental Effects of Mining and Mineral Extraction -- 11.6.Sustainable Utilization of Geospheric Mineral Resources -- 11.6.1.Metals -- 11.6.2.Nonmetal Mineral Resources -- 11.6.3.How Long Will Essential Minerals Last? -- 11.6.4.Green Sources of Minerals -- 11.6.5.Exploitation of Lower Grade Ores -- 11.6.6.Mining the Ocean Floors -- 11.6.7.Waste Mining -- 11.6.8.Recycling -- 11.7.Toxicological Implications of Mineral Mining and Processing -- 11.7.1.Pneumoconiosis from Exposure to Mineral Dust -- 11.7.2.Heavy Metal Poisoning -- 11.8.Sustaining the Geosphere to Manage Water -- 11.8.1.China's Three Gorges Dam Project -- 11.8.2.Water Pollution and the Geosphere -- 11.9.Waste Disposal and the Geosphere -- 11.9.1.Municipal Refuse -- 11.9.2.Hazardous Waste Disposal -- 11.10.Derelict Lands and Brownfields -- 11.10.1.Land Restoration from the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Accident -- 11.11.Sustaining Soil -- 11.11.1.Biochar for Soil Conservation and Enrichment -- 11.11.2.Reversing Desertification -- 11.11.3.Reforestation -- 11.11.4.Water and Soil Conservation -- Questions and Problems -- Literature Cited -- Supplementary References -- ch. 12 Environmental and Toxicological Chemistry of the Biosphere -- 12.1.Life and the Biosphere -- 12.1.1.Biosphere in Stabilizing the Earth System: Gaia Hypothesis -- 12.2.Organisms and Sustainable Science and Technology -- 12.3.Life Systems -- 12.3.1.Biosphere/Atmosphere Interface and the Crucial Importance of Climate -- 12.4.Metabolism and Control in Organisms -- 12.4.1.Enzymes in Metabolism -- 12.4.2.Nutrients -- 12.4.3.Control in Organisms -- 12.5.Reproduction and Inherited Traits -- 12.6.Stability and Equilibrium of the Biosphere -- 12.6.1.Biomes in Unexpected Places -- 12.6.2.Response of Life Systems to Stress -- 12.6.3.Relationships among Organisms -- 12.6.4.Populations -- 12.7.DNA and the Human Genome -- 12.8.Biological Interaction with Environmental Chemicals -- 12.8.1.Biodegradation -- 12.9.Effects of the Anthrosphere on the Biosphere -- 12.9.1.Beneficial Effects of Humans on the Biosphere -- Questions and Problems -- Literature Cited -- Supplementary References -- ch. 13 Sustaining the Biosphere and Its Natural Capital -- 13.1.Keeping Life Alive -- 13.2.Natural Capital of the Biosphere -- 13.2.1.Types of Biomaterials from the Biosphere -- 13.2.2.Biorefineries -- 13.2.3.Using the Biosphere through Agriculture -- 13.2.4.Genome Sequencing and Green Chemistry -- 13.3.Genetic Engineering -- 13.3.1.Recombinant DNA and Genetic Engineering -- 13.3.2.Major Transgenic Crops and Their Characteristics -- 13.3.3.Crops versus Pests -- 13.3.4.Future Crops -- 13.4.Role of Human Activities in Preserving and Enhancing the Biosphere -- 13.4.1.Artificial Habitats and Habitat Restoration -- 13.5.Preserving the Biosphere by Preserving the Atmosphere -- 13.6.Preserving the Biosphere by Preserving the Hydrosphere -- 13.7.Preserving the Biosphere by Preserving the Geosphere -- 13.7.1.Constructing the Geosphere to Support the Biosphere: What the Ancient Incas Knew -- Questions and Problems -- Literature Cited -- Supplementary References -- ch. 14 Environmental and Toxicological Chemistry of the Anthrosphere -- 14.1.Anthrosphere -- 14.1.1.Crucial Anthrospheric Infrastructure -- 14.1.2.Sociosphere -- 14.2.Industrial Ecology and Industrial Ecosystems -- 14.2.1.Kalundborg Industrial Ecosystem -- 14.3.Metabolic Processes in Industrial Ecosystems -- 14.3.1.Attributes of Successful Industrial Ecosystems -- 14.3.2.Diversity -- 14.4.Life Cycles in Industrial Ecosystems -- 14.4.1.Product Stewardship -- 14.5.Kinds of Products -- 14.6.Environmental Impacts of the Anthrosphere -- 14.6.1.Impact of Agricultural Production -- 14.6.2.Design of Industrial Ecosystems to Minimize Environmental Impact -- 14.7.Green Chemistry and the Anthrosphere -- 14.7.1.Presidential Green Chemistry Challenge Awards -- 14.8.Predicting and Reducing Hazards with Green Chemistry -- 14.9.Atom Economy and the E Factor in Green Chemistry -- 14.9.1.Yield and Atom Economy -- 14.9.2.Nature of Wastes -- 14.10.Catalysts and Catalysis in Green Chemistry -- 14.11.Biocatalysis with Enzymes -- 14.11.1.Immobilized Enzyme Catalysts -- 14.11.2.Reduction in Synthesis Steps with Enzyme Catalysts -- 14.11.3.Enzyme Catalysts and Chirality -- 14.12.Energizing Chemical Reactions and Process Intensification -- 14.12.1.Process Intensification and Increased Safety with Smaller Size -- 14.13.Solvents and Alternate Reaction Media -- 14.13.1.Water Solvent -- 14.13.2.Carbon Dioxide Solvent -- 14.13.3.Ionic Liquid Solvents -- 14.14.Feedstocks and Reagents -- 14.14.1.Feedstocks -- 14.14.2.Reagents -- 14.14.3.Reagents for Oxidation and Reduction -- 14.14.4.Electrons as Reagents for Oxidation and Reduction -- 14.15.Anthrosphere and Occupational Health -- 14.15.1.Role of Green Chemistry in Occupational Health -- Questions and Problems -- Literature Cited -- Supplementary References -- ch. 15 Anthrosphere, Pollution, and Wastes -- 15.1.Wastes from the Anthrosphere -- 15.1.1.History of Hazardous Substances -- 15.1.2.Pesticide Burial Grounds -- 15.1.3.Legislation -- 15.2.Classification of Hazardous Substances and Wastes -- 15.2.1.Characteristics and Listed Wastes -- 15.2.2.Hazardous Wastes and Air and Water Pollution Control -- 15.3.Sources of Wastes -- 15.3.1.Types of Hazardous Wastes -- 15.3.2.Hazardous Waste Generators -- 15.4.Flammable and Combustible Substances -- 15.4.1.Combustion of Finely Divided Particles -- 15.4.2.Oxidizers -- 15.4.3.Spontaneous Ignition -- 15.4.4.Toxic Products of Combustion -- 15.5.Reactive Substances -- 15.5.1.Chemical Structure and Reactivity -- 15.6.Corrosive Substances -- 15.6.1.Sulfuric Acid -- 15.7.Toxic Substances -- 15.8.Physical Forms and Segregation of Wastes -- 15.9.Environmental Chemistry of Hazardous Wastes -- 15.10.Transport, Effects, and Fates of Hazardous Wastes -- 15.10.1.Physical Properties of Wastes -- 15.10.2.Chemical Factors -- 15.10.3.Environmental Effects of Hazardous Wastes -- 15.10.4.Fates of Hazardous Wastes -- 15.11.Hazardous Wastes and the Anthrosphere -- 15.12.Hazardous Wastes in the Geosphere -- 15.13.Hazardous Wastes in the Hydrosphere -- 15.14.Hazardous Wastes in the Atmosphere -- 15.15.Hazardous Wastes in the Biosphere -- 15.15.1.Microbial Metabolism in Waste Degradation -- 15.16.Hazardous Substances and Environmental Health and Safety -- Questions and Problems -- Literature Cited -- Supplementary References -- ch. 16 Industrial Ecology and Green Chemistry for Sustainable Management of the Anthrosphere -- 16.1.Managing the Anthrosphere for Sustainability -- 16.2.Feeding the Anthrosphere -- 16.2.1.Utilization of Feedstocks -- 16.3.Key Feedstock: Abundant Elemental Hydrogen from Sustainable Sources Note continued: 16.4.Feedstocks from the Geosphere -- 16.4.1.Occupational and Public Health Aspects of Mining -- 16.4.2.Toxic Hazards of Cyanide in Gold Recovery -- 16.5.Biological Feedstocks -- 16.6.Monosaccharide Feedstocks: Glucose and Fructose -- 16.7.Hydrocarbons and Similar Materials from Sugars -- 16.8.Cellulose -- 16.8.1.Feedstocks from Cellulose Wastes -- 16.9.Lignin -- 16.10.Biosynthesis of Chemicals -- 16.10.1.Fermentation and Industrial Microbiology -- 16.10.2.Metabolic Engineering and Chemical Biosynthesis -- 16.10.3.Production of Materials by Plants -- 16.11.Direct Biosynthesis of Polymers -- 16.12.Biorefineries and Biomass Utilization -- 16.13.Green Chemistry and Industrial Ecology in Waste Management -- 16.14.Recycling -- 16.14.1.Waste Oil Utilization and Recovery -- 16.14.2.Waste Solvent Recovery and Recycling -- 16.14.3.Recovery of Water from Wastewater -- 16.15.Hazardous Waste Treatment Processes -- 16.16.Methods of Physical Treatment -- 16.17.Chemical Treatment -- 16.17.1.Electrolysis -- 16.17.2.Hydrolysis -- 16.17.3.Chemical Extraction and Leaching -- 16.17.4.Ion Exchange -- 16.18.Photolytic Reactions -- 16.19.Thermal Treatment Methods -- 16.19.1.Incineration -- 16.19.2.Effectiveness of Incineration -- 16.19.3.Hazardous Waste Fuel -- 16.20.Biodegradation of Hazardous Wastes -- 16.20.1.Oxic and Anoxic Waste Biodegradation -- 16.20.2.Land Treatment and Composting -- 16.21.Preparation of Wastes for Disposal -- 16.22.Ultimate Disposal of Wastes -- 16.23.Leachate and Gas Emissions -- 16.24.In Situ Treatment of Disposed Hazardous Wastes -- 16.24.1.Treatment In Situ -- Questions and Problems -- Literature Cited -- Supplementary References -- ch. 17 Sustainable Energy: The Key to Everything -- 17.1.Energy Problem -- 17.2.Nature of Energy -- 17.3.Sustainable Energy: Away from the Sun and Back Again -- 17.3.1.The Brief Era of Fossil Fuels -- 17.3.2.Back to the Sun -- 17.4.Sources of Energy Used in the Anthrosphere: Present and Future -- 17.5.Energy Devices and Conversions -- 17.5.1.Fuel Cells -- 17.6.Green Technology and Energy Conversion Efficiency -- 17.7.Energy Conservation and Renewable Energy Sources -- 17.8.Petroleum Hydrocarbons and Natural Gas Liquids -- 17.8.1.Heavy Oil -- 17.8.2.Shale Oil -- 17.8.3.Natural Gas Liquids -- 17.9.Natural Gas -- 17.10.Coal -- 17.10.1.Coal Conversion -- 17.11.Carbon Sequestration for Fossil Fuel Utilization -- 17.12.Great Plains Synfuels Plant: Industrial Ecology in Practice to Produce Energy and Chemicals -- 17.13.Nuclear Energy -- 17.13.1.Thorium-Fueled Reactors -- 17.13.2.Nuclear Fusion -- 17.14.Geothermal Energy -- 17.15.Sun: An Ideal, Renewable Energy Source -- 17.15.1.Solar Photovoltaic Energy Systems -- 17.15.2.Artificial Photosynthesis for Capturing Solar Energy -- 17.16.Energy from Earth's Two Great Fluids in Motion -- 17.16.1.Surprising Success of Wind Power -- 17.16.2.Energy from Moving Water -- 17.16.3.Energy from Moving Water without Dams -- 17.17.Biomass Energy: An Overview of Biofuels and Their Resources -- 17.17.1.Processing of Biofuel to More Compact Forms -- 17.17.2.Decarbonization with Biomass Utilization -- 17.17.3.Conversion of Biomass to Other Fuels -- 17.17.4.Ethanol Fuel -- 17.17.5.Biodiesel Fuel -- 17.17.6.Fuel from Algae -- 17.17.7.Unrealized Potential of Lignocellulose Fuels -- 17.17.8.Chemical Conversion of Biomass to Synthetic Fuels -- 17.17.9.Biogas -- 17.17.10.Biorefineries and Systems of Industrial Ecology for Utilizing Biomass -- 17.17.11.System of Industrial Ecology for Methane Production from Renewable Sources -- 17.18.Hydrogen as a Means to Store and Utilize Energy -- 17.19.Combined Power Cycles -- 17.20.Environmental Health Aspects of Energy Production and Utilization -- 17.20.1.Coal -- 17.20.2.Petroleum and Natural Gas -- 17.20.3.Nuclear Energy -- Questions and Problems -- Literature Cited -- Supplementary References -- ch. 18 Analytical Chemistry and Industrial Hygiene -- 18.1.Analytical Chemistry -- 18.2.Industrial Hygiene and Analytical Chemistry -- 18.2.1.What Is Industrial Hygiene? -- 18.2.2.Laws and Regulations Pertaining to Occupational Safety and Health -- 18.3.Categories of Workplace Hazards -- 18.4.Chemical Hazards -- 18.4.1.Exposure Limits -- 18.5.Workplace Sampling and Personal Monitoring -- 18.6.Chemical Analysis Process -- 18.7.Major Categories of Chemical Analysis -- 18.8.Error and Treatment of Data -- 18.9.Gravimetric Analysis -- 18.10.Volumetric Analysis: Titration -- 18.11.Spectrophotometric Methods of Analysis -- 18.11.1.Absorption Spectrophotometry -- 18.11.2.Atomic Absorption and Emission Analyses -- 18.11.3.Atomic Emission Techniques -- 18.12.Electrochemical Methods of Analysis -- 18.13.Chromatography -- 18.13.1.High-Performance Liquid Chromatography -- 18.13.2.Ion Chromatography -- 18.13.3.Chromatography-Based Methods of Analysis for Water Pollutants -- 18.14.Mass Spectrometry -- 18.15.Automated Analyses -- 18.16.Immunoassay Screening -- 18.17.Total Organic Carbon in Water -- 18.18.Measurement of Radioactivity in Water -- 18.19.Analysis of Wastes and Solids -- 18.19.1.Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure -- 18.20.Atmospheric Monitoring -- 18.20.1.Methods for Sampling and Analyzing Atmospheric Pollutants -- 18.20.2.Determination of Atmospheric Sulfur Dioxide by the West-Gaeke Method -- 18.20.3.Atmospheric Particulate Matter -- 18.20.4.Nitrogen Oxides in the Atmosphere -- 18.20.5.Determination of Atmospheric Oxidants -- 18.20.6.Atmospheric Carbon Monoxide by Infrared Absorption -- 18.20.7.Determination of Hydrocarbons and Organics in the Atmosphere -- 18.20.8.Direct Spectrophotometric Analysis of Gaseous Air Pollutants -- 18.21.Analysis of Biological Materials and Xenobiotics -- 18.21.1.Indicators of Exposure to Xenobiotics -- 18.21.2.Immunological Methods of Xenobiotics Analysis -- Questions and Problems -- Literature Cited -- Supplementary References -- ch. 19 Fundamentals of Chemistry -- 19.1.Science of Matter -- 19.1.1.States of Matter -- 19.1.2.Gases and the Gas Laws -- 19.2.Elements -- 19.2.1.Subatomic Particles and Atoms -- 19.2.2.Atom Nucleus and Electron Cloud -- 19.2.3.Isotopes -- 19.2.4.Important Elements -- 19.2.5.Periodic Table -- 19.2.6.Electrons in Atoms -- 19.2.7.Lewis Structures and Symbols of Atoms -- 19.2.8.Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids -- 19.3.Chemical Bonding -- 19.3.1.Chemical Compounds -- 19.3.2.Molecular Structure -- 19.3.3.Summary of Chemical Compounds and the Ionic Bond -- 19.3.4.Molecular Mass -- 19.3.5.Mole and Molar Mass -- 19.3.6.Oxidation State -- 19.4.Chemical Reactions and Equations -- 19.4.1.Reaction Rates -- 19.5.Solutions -- 19.5.1.Solution Concentration -- 19.5.2.Water as a Solvent -- 19.5.3.Solutions of Acids, Bases, and Salts -- 19.5.4.Concentration of H+ Ion and pH -- 19.5.5.Metal Ions Dissolved in Water -- 19.5.6.Complex Ions Dissolved in Water -- 19.5.7.Colloidal Suspensions -- 19.5.8.Solution Equilibria -- 19.5.9.Distribution between Phases -- Questions and Problems -- Literature Cited -- Supplementary References -- ch. 20 Organic Chemistry -- 20.1.Organic Chemistry -- 20.1.1.Molecular Geometry in Organic Chemistry -- 20.1.2.Chirality and the Shapes of Organic Molecules -- 20.2.Hydrocarbons -- 20.2.1.Alkanes -- 20.2.2.Alkenes -- 20.2.3.Aromatic Hydrocarbons -- 20.3.Using Lines to Show Structural Formulas -- 20.4.Functional Groups -- 20.4.1.Organooxygen Compounds -- 20.4.2.Organonitrogen Compounds -- 20.4.3.Organohalide Compounds -- 20.4.4.Organosulfur and Organophosphorus Compounds -- 20.5.Giant Molecules from Small Organic Molecules -- Questions and Problems -- Supplementary References ER -