1 Introduction: approaching the subject Who represents Islam? 1 WlhU is Islam? 2 Is there a "true Islam"? 3 Empathetic umierstamling 3 Apologetics 5 Two problematic pairs 6 .From Orientalism to Islamic Studies 6 Tl)e role of the media 7 Issues of language and related matters 7 Dates 8 An introductory ouervicw ojTslam 8 PARTI History of the coniiminity 2 On the eve of Islam: the Hellenistic-Iranian world Tii'o "superpowers" 18 Religion in Inni; Zoroastrianism 19 Other Iranian religions 21 Byzantine Christianity 21 Other forms of Christianity 24 Jews 25 Philosophers and Gnostics 26 Tl)e Axial Age 28 3 The beginnings of Islam: Muslim history to about 700 ce 77jc Arabs before Islam 31 Uie career of the Prophet Muhammad 34 Confict and comjuest after Muhammad 38 Some scholarly reservations 42 4 Expansion and flowering; the history of Islam fiom about 700 to 17O0 ce Use later Umayyad period 47 Tl:e early Abbasid period 48 Independent or autonomous realms 50 TIk' later Abbasid period 52 Tlse Crusades and their effects 52 The Mongol invasions and after 54 The three great empires: Ottomans, Safavids and Moghuls 57 Central Asia, China, Southeast Asia and Africa 60 PART II Aspects of Islam 5 The Qur'an: God speaks Wloat is the Qur'an? 65 Hie Qur'an in Muslim culture 68 Tlje main teachings of the Qur'an 70 Interpretation of the Qur'an 77 Modern critical approaches to the Qur'an 78 6 The Prophet Muhammad: "the best of ail creatures" Muhammad is human, but special 84 Sunna and Hadith 85 How authentic are the Hadith? 88 Muhammad as intercessor and spiritual being 90 Modernist rieiw; Muhammad as hero 93 7 Rituals and ceremonies Some basic distinctions and concerns 99 TIk Pillars 100 Other pilgrimages 113 TIk birthday oj the Prophet Muhammad (Mawlid al-Nabi} 113 Life cycle rituals 114 Sibha 116 Halnl food 116 8 Divisions in the umma: sects and political theory Kbarijis 121 Shi'is 122 Stnnii$ 127 Persian and Greek contributions 130 9 Those who know: scholars and learning Who are the 'ulama'? 134 TIk mosque 135 Education and learning 135 Tlje sciences and higher leuel teaching 137 'Ulama' and gouernment 141 10 To know God's will: Islamic law Law: Shari'a and fiqh 146 H)e five Shari'a valuations 147 Usul al-fiqh, the roots ofjurisprttdence: the Stinni form 149 Sunni "schools" of jurisprudence, madhhabs 153 Usul al-fiqh; the Twelver Shi'iform 154 Muftis and farwas 155 A brief history of fiqh 157 TIh' Shari'a and popular appropriation 159 11 Theology and philosophy! "God talk", Muslim style Tljeology (kalam, usul al-din) 163 Theological issues 165 Philosophy 169 Main teachings of the philosophers 170 12 Hie Sufi path to God: spiritual dimensions of Islam Knowledge, love and remembrance of Cod 176 Tariqa, the path 177 The goal: fana' and baqa' 179 Walis Csai'nfs) 182 Sufism and Shari'a-mindedness 184 Historical outline 185 Poetry and theosophy 187 Some recent developments 190 13 A philosopher, a scholar-mystic and a reformer Ibn Sina 194 Al'Ghazali 199 Ibn Taymiyya 202 14 Culture and countet'culcure Visual arc 209 Architecture 214 Literature 217 Poetry 218 - Prose 221 Music 222 PART III Modern developments 15 Modern challenges; Western imperialism and Muslim response European imperialism and colonialism 230 Modernization, Westernization, secularization 233 Tt}c challenge to Islam: "the great reversal" 233 Pre-modern rejorm 234 Responses to the challenge 235 Traditionalism 235 Islamic modernism 237 Secularism 241 Islamism 243 Resurgence of Islam 247 TJje special case of Israel and Palestine 249 Tile "Arab spring" 251 Post-Islamism? 252 16 Ideology' and politics in Turkey: secularist reform Ottoman defeats and reforms 256 Ottoman "pan-Islamic" policy and claim to the caliphate 258 "Turkism" in the early tiventieth century 259 Nationalist and secularist republic established by Atatiirk 259 Partial retreat from secularism from about 1950 263 TJjc Nurcu and Giilcn movements 266 Alevi irvival 266 TIh' Turkish experience 267 17 Ideology and politics in Eg)'pt: between secularism and Islamism TI)e beginnings of modernization and secularization 271 Muhammad Abduh and Islamic modernism 273 Nationalism and secularization in the early tivoitieth century 274 Tlx beginnings of Islamism: the Muslim Brothers 276 Revolution: support, control and repression 278 Resurgence of Islam 279 Tlx "Arab spring" in Egypt 283 18 Ideology and politics in Iran: from secularism to Islamic republic TJjc Qajat's: religion, foreign interference, constitution 289 Jlje Pahlavis: Reza Shah and Iranian nationalism 293 Muhammad Reza Shah: White Reuolution 294 Islamic opposition and revolution 295 Islamic republic 297 After Khomeini 300 19 Ideology and politics in Indonesia: Islamic society or Islamic state? Islaniization of Java, Sumatra and other islands 306 Dutch imperialism a)id continuing Islamization 309 Twentieth'century movements 310 Independence and the issue of an Islamic state 312 Tlje events of 1965 and Suhartos regime 314 Post'Suharto: elections; violent Islamism 316 20 Globalization: challenge and opportvmity Globalization: meaning and examples 322 Global jihad 324 Why martyrdom operations? 329 Muslim diaspora in the West 331 Liberal/progressive Islam 335 21 Three cultural flashpoints: gender, democracy and human rights Gender 343 Democracy 352 Human rights 357 Concluding problematic postscript: the myth of equality 364