Educational research: an introduction /
Meredith D. Gall, Joyce P. Gall, Walter R. Borg.
- 8th ed.
- Boston : Pearson/Allyn & Bacon, 2007.
- xxxi, 672 p. 24 cm.
Part I: Introduction 1. The Nature of Educational Research Contributions of Research to Knowledge about Education Description Prediction Improvement Explanation Uses of Theory Approaches to Theory Development Example of Theory Testing Application of Research to Educational Practice Limitations of Research Knowledge The Importance of Basic Research Funding for Educational Research Epistemological Issues in Educational Research Positivism and Postpositivism Constructivism Objective and Constructed Realities Cases and Populations Numerical and Verbal Representations of Social Reality Mechanical, Interpretive, and Structural Views of Causation Postmodernism Quantitative and Qualitative Research Mixed-Methods Research A Definition of Research Learning How to Do Educational Research Self-Check Test Part II: Planning a Research Study 2. The Research Process: From Proposal to Final Report Introduction IdentifS'ing a Research Problem Reading the Research Literature Doing Theor\'-Based Research Example of Theory-Based Research Ad van tages of Theory- Based Research Replicating and Extending Previous Research Working on a Team Project Preparing a Research Proposal Introductory' Section Research Hypotheses in Quantitative Research Research Hypotheses in Qualitative Research Research Questions and Purposes Literature Review Section Research Design Section Research Methods Section Data Analysis Section Protection of Human Subjects Section Time Line Section Conducting a Pilot Study Using the Proposal in Writing the Dissertation Format Front Matter Introductory Chapter Literature Review Chapter Research Method Chapter Results Chapter Discussion Chapter Back Matter Preparing a Journal Article Preparing a Paper for a Professional Meeting Recommendations for Planning and Reporting Research Self-Check Test 3. Ethics and Site Relations in Educational Research The Importance of Ethics and Site Relations in Educational Research Typical Aspects of Educational Research That May Raise Ethical Concerns Planning and Design of Research Researcher Qualifications ' Conflict of Interest Neglect of Important Topics Research Methodology Control Group Experience Use of Deception Use of Tests Termination of Treatment Conditions Data Collection and Analysis Reporting of Research Authorship Plagiarism Partial or Dual Publication Formal Regulation of Research Ethics Statements of Ethical Principles Government Regulations Ethical Standards of the American Educational Research Association Ethical Principles of the American Psychological Association Institutional Review Boards' Role in Ensuring Research Ethics The Design and Purpose of an IRB Examples of Research Situations That Call for IRB Review Criteria for IRB Approval of a Research Project Assessment of the Risk-Benefit Ratio Selection of Participants Obtaining Informed Consent Maintenance of Privacy and Confidentiality Tireatment of Vulnerable Populations Site Relations in Educational Research Location of a Research Site Securing Permission and Cooperation Building a Relationship with the Site Dealing with Human Relations Issues Recommendations for Ensuring That a Research Study Is Ethical, Legal, and Harmonious Self-Check Test 4. Reviewing the Literature Purposes of a Literature Review Major Steps in a Literature Review Searching Preliminary Sources Types of Documents Indexed by Preliminary Sources Content and Coverage of Online Preliminary Sources Popular Online Preliminary Sources Search Strategies in Using Preliminary Sources Displaying Records in Preliminary Sources Using Secondary Sources Reading Primary Sources Classifying Primary Sources Critical Evaluation of Research Studies Synthesizing the Findings of Your Literature Review Synthesizing Quantitative Research Findings The Narrative Review Vote Counting The Chi-Square Method Meta-Analysis and Effect Size Synthesizing Qualitative Research Findings Recommendations for Reviewing Research Literature Self-Check Test Part III: Research Methods 5. StatisticalTechniques The Use of Statistics in Educational Research Example of Statistical Analysis in a Research Study The Need for Judgment in Statistical Analysis Acquiring Statistical Expertise Types of Scores Continuous Scores Age and Grade Equivalents Standard Scores Rank Scores Categories Descriptive Statistics Measures of Central Tendency Mean, Median, and Mode Skewness Categorical Data Measures of Variability Standard Deviation Normal Curve Other Measures of Variability Correlational Statistics Inferential Statistics Generalizing from a Sample to a Population The Null Hypothesis Tests of Statistical Significance Levels of Statistical Significance Type I and Type II Errors Interpretation of Significance Tests Alpha and Probability Values Misinterpretation of p Values Criticisms of Significance Tests Types of Significance Tests Statistical Power Analysis Supplements to Significance Tests Confidence Limits Replication of Research Results Effect Size Psychometric Statistics Problems in Statistical Analysis The Need for Exploratory Data Analysis Stem-and-Leaf Displays Advantages of Stem-and-Leaf Displays Graphical Displays Missing Data The Unit of Statistical Analysis Multilevel Analysis Processing Statistical Data Computer Hardware Computer Software Computer Consultants Checking Data Analyses for Accuracy Storing Research Data Recommendations for Doing Statistical Analyses Self-Check Test 6. Selecting a Sample Sampling Logic in Research Sampling in Quantitative Research Defining the Population of Interest Target and Accessible Populations Inferential Leaps from a Sample to a Population Determining Population Validity Types of Probability Sampling Simple Random Sampling Systematic Random Sampling Stratified Random Sampling Cluster Sampling Example of Sampling a Phenomenon Rather Than Individuals Nonprobability Sampling Convenience Sampling Determining Sample Size for a Quantitative Research Study Sampling in Qualitative Research Rationale of Purposeful Sampling Appljdng Replication Logic Types of Purposeful Sampling Strategies to Select Cases Representing a Key Characteristic Strategies Reflecting a Conceptual Rationale Emergent Strategies Strategy Lacking a Rationale Determining the Number of Cases for a Qualitative Research Study Volunteers in Research Samples Characteristics of Research Volunteers Volunteers in Research Requiring Parental Consent Checking Volunteer Characteristics Improving the Rate of Volunteering Recommendations for Selecting a Research Sample Self-Check Test 7. Collecting Research Data with Tests and Self-Report Measures Use of Tests and Self-Report Measures in Educational Research Characteristics of a Good Test in Research Criteria for Judging the Quality of Tests ^ Objectivity Standard Conditions of Administration and Scoring Standards for Interpretation Fairness Test Validity Evidence from Test Content Evidence from Response Processes Evidence from Internal Structure Evidence from Relationship to Other Variables Evidence from Consequences of Testing Test Reliability Types of Test Reliability Use of Generalizability Theory Standard Error of Measurement Use of Item Response Theory Approaches to Measurement Standardized versus Locally Constructed Tests Referenced Test Scores Norm-Referenced Measurement Criterion-Referenced Measurement Individual-Referenced Measurement Computer-Based Testing Use of Computers in Test Development Use of Computers in Test Administration, Scoring, and Interpretation Individual versus Group Testing Types of Tests and Self-Report Measures Measures of Performance Intelligence Tests Aptitude Tests Achievement Tests Diagnostic Tests Performance Assessment Measures of Personal Characteristics Persontdity Inventories Projective Techniques Measures of Specific Personality Traits Measures of Self-Concept Measures of Learning Styles and Habits Attitude Sceiles Measures of Vocational Interest Obtaining Information about Tests and Self-Report Measures Searching Preliminary and Secondary Sources Reading the Test Manual Examining the Test Itself Contacting the Test Developer Using Tests or Self-Report Measures in a Research Project Developing Your Own Test Dealing with Resistance to Tests Testing in Field Sites Gaining the Cooperation of Test-Takers Recommendations for Using Tests and Self-Report Measures in Research Self-Check Test 8. Collecting Research Data with Questionnaires and Interviews Questionnaires and Interviews as Data-Collection Methods Selecting between Questionnaires and Interviews Validity and Reliability Issues Survey Research Steps in Constructing and Administering a Reseeirch Questionnaire Step 1: Defining Research Objectives Step 2: Selecting a Sample Step 3: Designing the Questionnaire Anonymity of Respondents Item Form Use of Questionneiires in the Measurement of Attitudes Web Questionnaires Step 4: Pilot-Testing the Questionnaire Step 5; Precontacting the Sample Step 6: Writing a Cover Letter Step 7: FoUowing Up with Nonrespondents Step 8: Analyzing Questionnaire Data Steps in Preparing and Conducting Research Interviews Step 1: Defining the Purpose of the Interview Key Informant Interviews Survey Interviews Focus Group Interviews Step 2: Selecting a Sample Step 3: Designing the Interview Format Interview Formats in Quantitative Research Interview Formats in Qualitative Research Telephone Interviews Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviews Web Interviews Step 4: Developing Questions Step 5: Selecting and Training Interviewers Distinctive Respondents Respondents as Interviewers "Ihaining of Interviewers Step 6: Pilot-Testing the Interview Step 7: Conducting the Interview Interviewing Tasks Recording Interview Data Step 8: Analyzing Interview Data Recommendations for Using a Questionnaire or an Interview Guide to Collect Research Data Self-Check Test 9. Collecting Research Data through Observation and Content Analysis Forms of Observation and Content Analysis Reactive Observation in Quantitative Research Defining Observational Variables lypes of Observational Variables Recording and Analyzing Observations lypes of Recording Procedures Selecting an Observation Recording Procedure Standard Observation Forms Audio and Video Recording Use of Computers and Other Electronic Devices Selecting and Training Observers Determining Observer Agreement Reducing Observer Effects Types of Observer Effects Reactive Observation in Qualitative Research Purpose of Observation in Qualitative Research Defining the Observer Role Preparing for Observation Determining the Focus of Observation Gaining Entry into the Field Setting Recording Observations What Field Notes Should Include Dealing with Observer Effects Analyzing Qualitative Observational Data Nonreactive Observation in Quantitative Research Use of Unobtrusive Measures Potential Limitations of Unobtrusive Measures Nonreactive Observation in Qualitative Research Content Analysis of Documents and Other Commimication Media Content Analysis in Quantitative Research Steps in Content Analysis Analysis of Documents and Records in Qualitative Observation Recommendations for Using Observational and Content-Analysis Methods Self-Check Test Past IV: Quantitative Research Design 10. Nonexperimental Research: Descriptive and Causal-Comparative Designs Introduction An Example from Medical Research Descriptive Research Designs The Purpose of Descriptive Research Measurement in Descriptive Research Statistics in Descriptive Research Description of a Sample at One Point in Time Longitudinal Description of a Sample TVend Studies Cohort Studies sjyju Panel Studies Cross-Sectional Studies Causal-Comparative Research Designs The Study of Cause-and-Effect Relationships Example of a Causal-Comparative Research Study Planning a Causal-Comparative Study Statement of the Research Problem Selecting Comparison Groups Data Collection Data Analysis Statistical Analysis: The r Test The rTest for the Difference between Means The rTest for a Single Mean Statistical Analysis: Analysis of Variance Comparison of More Than Two Means Analysis of Covariance Multivariate Analysis of Variance Tests for the Difference between Variances Statistical Analysis: Nonparametric Tests Advantages and Disadvantages of Nonparametric Tests The Chi-Square Test Other Nonparametric Tests Interpretation of Causal-Comparative Findings Recommendations for Doing Descriptive and Causal-Comparative Research Self-Check Test 11. Nonexperimental Research: Correlational Designs The Nature of Correlation Types of Scattergrams Positive Correlation Negative Correlation Absence of Correlation The Mathematics of Correlation Correlational Research Design Correlation and Causality Advantages and Uses of Correlational Research Planning a Causal Relationship Study Basic Research Design The Problem Selection of Research Participants Data Collection Data Analysis Problems of Interpretation Limitations of Causal Relationship Studies Planning a Prediction Study Types of Prediction Studies Basic Research Design The Problem Selection of Research Participants Data Collection Data Analysis Statistical Factors in Prediction Research Group Prediction Shrinkage Bivariate Correlational Stadstics Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient Correlation Ratio Adjustments to Correlation Coefficients Correction for Attenuation Correction for Restriction in Range Part and Partial Correlation Multivariate Correlational Statistics Multiple Regression A Research Example Steps in a Multiple Regression Analysis Multiple Correlation Coefficient Coefficient of Determination The Mathematics of Multiple Regression Types of Multiple Regression Cautions in Using Multiple Regression Hierarchical Linear Modeling Path Analysis Steps in Path Analysis Path Analysis Models The Mathematics of Path Analysis Path Analysis and Theory Testing Factor Analysis Factor Loadings and Factor Scores Types of Factor Analysis Structural Equation Modeling Differential Analysis Subgroup Analysis in Causal Relationship Studies Moderator Variables in Prediction Studies Interpretation of Correlation Coefficients Statistical Significance of Correlation Coefficients Interpreting the Magnitude of Correlation Coefficients Recommendations for Doing Correlational Research Self-Check Test 12. Experimental Research: Designs, Part 1 Introduction Terminology in Experimental Design Validity Problems in Experiments Internal Validity of Experiments External Validity of Experiments Population Validity Ecological Validity Representative Design Issues in Designing Experiments Experimenter Bias lireatment Fidelity Strong versus Weak Experimental Tireatments Random Assignment in Experiments Single-Group Designs The One-Shot Case Study One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design Time-Series Design Control-Group Designs with Random Assignment Pretest-Posttest Control-Group Design Posttest-Only Control-Group Design One-Variable Multiple-Condition Design Recommendations for Doing Experiments Self-Check Test 13. E^qierimental Research: Designs, Part 2 Quasi-Experimental Designs Static-Group Comparison Design Nonequivalent Control-Group Design Factorial Designs TWo-Factor Experiments Example of a Two-Factor Experiment Solomon Four-Group Design Example of a Solomon Four-Group Experiment Variations in Factorial Eixperiments Three-Factor Experiments Manipulability of Independent Variables Fixed and Random Factors Assignment of Participants to Multiple Treatments Single-Case Designs Example of a Single-Case Experiment General Design Considerations Reliable Observation Repeated Measurement Description of Experimental Conditions Baseline and Treatment Stability Length of Baseline and Treatment Phases A-B-A Designs A-B Design A-B-A and A-B-A-B Designs Multiple-Baseline Designs Example of a Multiple-Baseline Experiment Statistical Analysis of Single-Case Data External Validity of Single-Case Designs Other Experimental Designs Measurement of Change Gain Scores Statistical Analysis of Change Multiple Regression Analysis of Covariance and t Tests Analysis of Variance for Repeated Measures Recommendations for Doing Experiments Self-Check Test Part V: Approaches to Qualitative Research 14. Case Study Research Importance of Case Study in Qualitative Research Characteristics of Case Studies Study of Particular Instances In-Depth Study of the Case Study of a Phenomenon in Its Real-Life Context Representation of Emic and Etic Perspectives Purposes of Case Studies Description Explanation Evaluation Designing a Case Study Formulating a Research Problem Selecting a Case Defining the Role of the Case Study Researcher Gaining Entry Addressing Ethical Issues Collecting Case Study Data Personal Involvement in the Data-Collection Process Analyzing Data during Data Collection Ending Data Collection Analyzing Case Study Data Interpretational Analysis Segmenting the Database Developing Categories Coding Segments Grouping Category Segments Drawing Conclusions Structural Analysis Reflective Analysis Ensuring the Quality and Rigor of Qualitative Research Strategies to Meet Users' Needs Strategies to Ensure Thorough Data Collection Strategies Reflecting Sound Research Design Positivist Conceptions of the Validity and Reliability of Case Study Research Determining the Applicability of Case Study Findings Reporting a Case Study Finalizing Definition of the Case Reflective Reporting Analytic Reporting Advemtages and Disadvantages of Case Study Research Recommendations for Doing Case Studies Self-Check Test Contents 15. Qualitative Research Traditions Qualitative Research Traditions in Educational Research The Characteristics of Qualitative Research Traditions Traditions Involving Investigation of Lived Experience Cognitive Psychology A Study of Differences in the Knowledge Structures of Experts and Novices Phenomenology Phenomenographic Research Life History Research Traditions Involving Investigation of Society and Culture Ethnography Phenomena Studied by Ethnographers Doing an Ethnographic Study Issues Facing Ethnography Cultural Studies and Critical-Theory Research Assumptions of the Cultural Studies Tradition Methods of Inquiry Focus on Issues Relevant to Education Theory Building in Cultural Studies Strengths and Weaknesses of Cultural Studies Ethnomethodology Traditions Involving Investigation of Language and Communication Hermeneutics Semiotics Structuralism and Poststructuralism Recommendations for Designing a Study Based on a Qualitative Research TVadition Self-Check Test 16. Historical Research Importance of Historical Research in Education Subject Matter of Historical Research Impact of Historical Research on Education A Subject in the Curriculum A Foundation for Developing New Knowledge and Policies Related to Education A Variable Affecting the Validity of Research Findings A Basis for Evaluating Educational Programs A Tool in Planning the Future Historiography and the Stages of Historical Research Defining a Problem for Historical Research Studying Historical Sources Formulating a Search Plan Searching Preliminary Sources Reading Secondary Sources Studying Primary Sources Recording Information from Historical Sources Recording and Analyzing Quantitative Data Evaluation of Historical Sources External Criticism Internal Criticism Interpretation in Historical Research Use of Concepts to Interpret Historical Information Historians as Interpreters Causal Inference in Historical Research Generalizability of Historical Evidence Writing a Historical Research Report Examples of Historical Research in Education A Micropolitical Perspective on the Education of Mexican Americans in a South Texas Community Politics and the Penduliun: A Historical Analysis of Whole Language Expanding Political Opportunities Shared Cognitions Mobilization of Indigent Organization Resources Shifting Response of Other Organized Groups to the Movement Recommendations for Doing Historical Research Self-Check Test Part VI: Applications of Research 17. Evaluation Research The Role of Evaluation in Education Relationship between Evaluation and Research Steps in Program Evaluation Clarifying the Reasons for an Evaluation Selecting an Evaluation Model Example of Collaborative Evaluation Identifying Stakeholders Deciding What Is to Be Evaluated Program Goals Program Resources and Procedures Program Management Program Outcomes Identifying Evaluation Questions Developing an Evaluation Design and Time Line Collecting and Analyzing Evaluation Data Reporting Evaluation Results Criteria for Effective Evaluation Research Program Evaluation Standards Personnel Evaluation Standards Other Standards for Educational Evaluation Quantitative Approaches to Evaluation Evaluation of the Individual Objectives-Based Evaluation Needs Assessment Example of Needs Assessment Limitations of Needs Assessment Context-Input-Process-Product (CIPP) Evaluation Qualitative Approaches to Evaluation Responsive Evaluation Example of Responsive tvaiuation Emergent Design Fourth-Generation Evaluation Quasi-Legal Models of Evaluation Adversary Evaluation Judicial Evaluation Expertise-Based Evaluation Educational Connoisseurship and Criticism Example of Expertise-Based Evaluation 1 Empowerment Evaluation Example of Empowerment Evaluation Educational Research and Development R&D Model Formative and Summative Evaluation Example of R&D Evaluation Recommendations for Doing an Evaluation Research Study or an R&D Evaluation Self-Check Test 18. Action Research Characteristics of Action Research Purposes for Conducting Action Research Personal Purposes for Action Research Professional Purposes for Action Research Political Purposes for Action Research Cyclical Nature of Action Research Focus on Data Collection and Analysis as a Basis for Action Focus on Reflection Stages of Action Research Selecting a Focus Taking Action Collecting Data Analyzing and Interpreting the Data Continuing or Modifying Action Reflection Reporting Action Research Credibility and Trustworthiness of Action Reseeirch Outcome Validity Process Validity Democratic Validity Catalytic Validity Dialogic Validity Reducing Discrepancies between Practitioners' Espoused Theories and Theorles-ln-Action Practitioner-Academic Collaboration Ethical Issues In Action Research Recommendations for Doing Action Research Self-Check Test
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Education--Research. Education--Research--United States.