Psychology: an introduction/ Lahey, Benjamin B.

Introduction to Psychology i
Psyche + Science = Psychoiogy 1
Definition of Psychology 2
Goals of Psychology 3
Founding the Science of Psychology 4
Nature of Conscious Experience 5
Functions of the Conscious Mind 6
Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory 8
Nature of the "Unconscious Mind" 9
Psychometrics: Alfred Binet 10
Neuroscience Perspective 10
Contemporary Perspectives and Specialty Areas in
Psychology 13
Sociocultural Perspective 13
Basic and Applied Areas in Modern Psychology 16
Relationship between Psychology and Psychiatry II
What We Know about Human Behavior:
Some Starting Places 20
SUMMARY 22
VISUAL REVIEW OF HISTORICAL TIME LINE 24
V' '4?
chapter two
Research Methods
in Psychology 25
Prologue 25
Basic Concepts of Research 26
Empirical Evidence and Operational Definitions 26
Theories and Hypotheses 27
Representativeness of Samples 27
Importance of Replication in Research 28
Research Methods 28
Descriptive Studies 28
Formal Experiments 33
Describing and Interpreting Data 37
Ethical Principles of Research 42
Ethics of Research with Human Participants 42
Ethics of Research with Nonhuman Animals 43
Human Diversity: Equal Representation in Research 44
• Application of Psychology: Design Your Own Formal
Experiment 46
SUMMARY 47
chapter three
Biological Foundations
of Behavior
Prologue 50
50
Nervous System: Biological Control Center 51
Neurons: Primary Units of the Nervous System 51
Glial Cells 55
Divisions of the Nervous System 59
Divisions of the Peripheral Nervous System 60
Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System 61
Structures and Functions of the Brain 64
Hindbrain and Midbrain: Housekeeping Chores
and Reflexes 64
Forebrain: Cognition, Motivation, Emotion,
and Action 65
Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex 67
Images of the Brain at Work 72
Functions of the Hemispheres of
the Cerebral Cortex 73
Human Diversity: Sex Differences in
the Cerebral Cortex 76
The Brain Is a Developing System 77
The Brain Is an Interacting System 78
Endocrine System: Chemical Messengers of the Body 79
Pituitary Gland 80
Adrenal Glands 81
Islets of Langerhans 82
Gonads 82 '
Thyroid Gland 82
Parathyroid Glands 82
Pineal Gland 82
• Application of Psychology: Madness and the Brain 84
SUMMARY 88
VISUAL REVIEW OF BRAIN STRUCTURES 89
chapter four
Interplay of Nature
and Nurture 92
Prologue 92
Nature: Genetic Influences on Behavior 93
Do Genes Influence Our Behavior
and Mental Processes? 93
Genetic Studies of Nonhuman Animal Behavior 93
Genetic Studies of Human Behavior 94
Molecular Genetic Mechanisms of Inheritance 96
Genes and Behavior 99
Nurture: Environmental Influences 100
Physical Environments 101
Social Environments 101
Interplay of Nature and Nurture 103
Gene-Environment Correlation 103
Gene-Environment Interaction 104
Sex, Gender, and Human Diversity 106
Gender Identity and Gender Roles 106
Gender Similarities and Gender Differences 108
Origins of Gender Differences 111
Genetics and Psychological Theory 114
Darwin, James, and Functionalism 114
Evolutionary Psychology 114
• Application of Psychology: Genes, Environments,
and the Cycle of Violence 120
SUMMARY 120
part two
Awareness
chapter five
Sensation and Perception 123
Prologue 123
Sensation: Receiving Sensory Messages 124
Stimuli: What Messages Can Be Received? 124
Transduction: Translating Messages for the Brain 125
Sensory Limits: How Strong Must Messages Be? 125
Vision: Sensing Light 128
Light: What Is It? 128
The Eye: How Does It Work? 129
Dark and Light Adaptation 131
Color Vision 132
Hearing: Sensing Sound Waves 136
Sound: What Is It? 136
The Ear: How Does It Work? 138
Body Senses 141
Orientation and Movement 141
Skin Senses 142
Pain 143
Human Diversity: Culture and Pain 147
Chemical Senses: The Flavors and Aromas of Life 149
Taste 149
Smell 150
Pheromone Detection 151
Perception: Interpreting Sensory Messages 152
Visual Perception 153
Multisensory Integration 162
Motivation, Emotion, and Perception 162
SUMMARY 164
VISUAL REVIEW OF THE SENSE ORGANS 165
chapter six
States of Consciousness is?
Prologue 167
Wide Awake: Normal Waking Consciousness 168
Daydreams 168
Divided Consciousness: Being Two Places (Mentally)
at the Same Time 169
The Concept of the Unconscious Mind 169
Sleep and Dreams: Conscious while Asleep 171
Stages of Sleep 171
REM Sleep and Dreams 173
Non-REM Sleep and Dreams 174
Circadian Rhythms 175
Sleep Deprivation and the Need for Sleep 176
Content of Dreams 178
Meaning of Dreams 179
Nightmares and Other Sleep Phenomena 180
Sleep Disorders 180
Altered States of Consciousness 182
Meditation 183
Mindfulness 183
Hypnosis 184
Depersonalization 186
Drugs and Altered Consciousness 187
Drug Use: Basic Considerations 187
Psychotropic Drugs 188
Drug Abuse and Dependence 191
Human Diversity: Substance Abuse and Diversity 192
• Application of Psychology: The Legal Consciousness-
Altering Drugs 195
SUMMARY 198
part three
Learning and Cognition
chapter seven
Basic Principles of Learning
199
Prologue 199
Definition of Learning 200
Classical Conditioning: Learning by Association 201
Association: The Key Element in
Classical Conditioning 202
Terminology of Classical Conditioning 203
Definition of Classical Conditioning 204
Importance of Classical Conditioning 207
Operant Conditioning: Learning from the Consequences
of Your Behavior 209
Positive Reinforcement 210
Negative Reinforcement 215
Punishment 216
Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning 218
Stimulus Discrimination and Generalization 219
Extinction: Learning When to Quit 221
Removing the Source of Learning 222
Spontaneous Recovery and Disinhibition 222
Theoretical Interpretations of Learning 224
Cognition or Connection? 225
Modeling: Learning by Watching Others 229
Biological Factors in Learning 230
• Application of Psychology:
Learning to Be Superstitious 233
SUMMARY 233
chapter eight
Memory 235
Prologue 235
Three Stages of Memory: An Information-Processing
View 237 '
Sensory Register 238
Short-Term Memory 239
Long-Term Memory 241
Levels of Processing: An Alternative to
the Stage Model 247
Forgetting and Why It Occurs 250
Decay Theory 250
Interference Theory 251
Reconstruction (Schema) Theory 252
Motivated Forgetting 256
Human Diversity: Cultural Circumstances
and Memory 256
Biological Basis of Memory 258
Synaptic Theories of Memory:
Search for the Engram 258
Stages of Memory and the Brain 259
Amnesia: Disorders of Memory 261
• Application of Psychology: Eyewitness Testimony
and Memory 264
SUMMARY 268
chapter nine
Cognition, Language,
and Intelligence 270
Prologue 270
Definition of Cognition 271
Concepts: The Basic Units of Thinking 272
Simple and Complex Concepts 272
Natural Concepts 273
Thinking and Problem Solving:
Using Information to Reach Goals 276
Formulating the Problem 277
Understanding and Organizing the Elements of the
Problem 278
Generating and Evaluating Alternative Solutions 278
Emotional Factors in Decision Making 279
Creative Problem Solving: Convergent and Divergent
Thinking 280
Human Diversity: Cultural Influences on Inferential
Reasoning 282
Language: Symbolic Communication 284
Semantics: The Meaning of What Is Said 284
Generative Property of Language:
Elements and Rules 285
Language and Thought: The Whorfian Hypothesis 286
Animal Languages: Can We Talk to the Animals? 287
Intelligence: The Sum Total of Cognition 290
Differing Views of Intelligence 290
Measuring Intelligence: The IQ Test 293
Tacit Intelligence 296
Individual Differences in Intelligence:
Contributing Factors 297
The Importance of Intelligence in Modern Society 294
Are People Becoming More Intelligent? 299
Race-Ethnic Differences in Intelligence and Achievement:
The Narrowing Gap 302
The Bell Curve: Policy Implications of Differences in
Intelligence 303
Extremes in Intelligence: Mental Retardation and
Giftedness 304
• Application of Psychology:
Improving Critical Thinking 307
SUMMARY 309
part four
Developmental
Psychology
A
I V >•
chapter ten
Developmental Psychology 311
Prologue 311
Basic Processes of Development 312
Nature and Nurture 312
Maturation 313
Early Experience and Critical Periods 313
Variations in Development: Getting There at Different
Times 316
Human Diversity: Raising a Child Who Cannot Hear 316
Stage Theories of Development 319
Piaget's Stage Theory of Cognitive Development 319
Stage Theories of Moral Development 319
Erikson's Stage Theory of Personality Development 322
Normal Development across the Life Span 324
Development in Infancy and Childhood 325
Neonatal Period: The Newborn 326
Infancy: 2 Weeks to 2 Years 326
Early Childhood: 2 to 7 Years 330
Middle Childhood: 7 to 11 Years 332
Adolescent Development 334
Physical Development 334
Cognitive Development (Formal Operational Stage) 335
Emotional and Social Development 336
Adulthood: Young Adulthood through Older Adulthood 339
Physical Development 339
Cognitive Development 339
Emotional and Social Development 339
Stages of Adult Life 34^
Death and Dying: The i "Stage" 347
• Application of Psychology: Parenting 350
SUMMARY 353
VISUAL REVIEW OF STAGE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 356
part five
The Self
chapter eleven
Motivation and Emotion 358
Prologue 358
Definitions of Motivation and Emotion 360
Primary Motives: Biological Needs 360
Homeostasis: Biological Thermostats 361
Hunger: The Regulation of Food Intake 361
Thirst: The Regulation of Water Intake 364
Psychological Motives 366
Stimulus Motivation: Seeking Novel Stimulation 366
Affiliation Motivation 369
Achievement Motivation 369
Solomon's Opponent-Process Theory
of Acquired Motives 370
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 372
Maslow's Hierarchy of Motives 373
Sexual Motivation and Sexuality 376
Sexual Response Cycle 376
Similarity of Sexual Motivation to
Other Primary Motives 377
Differences Between Sexual Motivation and Other
Primary Motives 379
Hormones and Other Biological Factors in Sexual
Behavior 379
Patterns of Sexual Behavior 380
Sexual Orientation 382
Emotions 385
Three Theories of Emotion 187
Role of Learning and Culture in Emotions 391
The Pursuit of Happiness 3<^^2
Human Diversity: Cultural Differences in Happiness 393
Aggression: Emotional and Motivational Aspects 395
Freud's Instinct Theory:
The Release of Aggressive E iergy 396
Frustration-Aggression Theory 396
Social Learning Theory 396
Cognitive Theory of Aggression 397
Violent Youth Gangs 398
• Application of Psychology: Date Rape 400
SUMMARY 401
VISUAL REVIEW OF THEORIES OF MOTIVATION AND
EMOTION 402
chapter twelve
Personality 404
Prologue 404
Definition of Personality 405
Trait Theory: Describing the Consistencies of
Personality 406
Allport's Trait Theory 406
Five-Factor Model of Personality 407
Validation of Personality Traits 408
Human Diversity: Personality and Culture 408
Psychoanalytic Theory: Sigmund Freud 411
Freud's Mind: Three Levels of Consciousness 412
Freud's Mind: Id, Ego, and Superego 412
Displacement and Identification:
Becoming a Member of Society 414
Growing Up: The Stages of Psychosexual
Development 415
Theories Derived from Psychoanalysis 417
Social Learning Theory: Albert Bandura 421
Role of Learning in Personality 421
Role of Cognition in Personality 422
Situationism and Interactionism 423
Humanistic Theory: Maslow and Rogers 425
Inner-Directedness and Subjectivity 425
The Self-Concept 425
Self-Actualization 426
Humanism Compared with Classic Psychoanalysis and
Social Learning Theory 427
Contemporary Merging of the Major Theories of
Personality 428
Personality Assessment: Taking a Measure of
the Person 430
Interviews and Observational Methods 430
Projective Personality Tests 431
Objective Personality Tests 431
Evaluation of Personality Tests 432
SUMMARY 434
VISUAL REVIEW OF PERSONALITY THEORY 435
part six
Health and Adjustment
chapter thirteen
Stress and Health 436
Prologue 436
Stress: Challenges to Coping 437
Sources of Stress 437
General Aspects of Stress Reactions 443
Physical Reactions to Stress and Health 444
Factors That Influence Reactions to Stress 449
Prior Experience with the Stress 449
Developmental Factors 449
Predictability and Control 449
Social Support 450
Person Variables in Reactions to Stress;
Cognition and Personality 451
Person Variables in Reactions to Stress:
Gender and Ethnicity 453
Coping with Stress 456
Effective Coping 456
Ineffective Coping 457
Changing Health-Related Behavior Patterns 450
Learning to Relax 460
Eating Right, Exercising, and Doing Just What the Doctor
Ordered 460
Human Diversity. Psychology and Women's Health '-63
Safety Management 464
• Application of Psychology: Prevention and Management
of AIDS 467
SUMMARY 469
chapter fourteen
Abnormal Behavior 47o
Prologue 470
Definition of Abnormal Behavior 471
Historical Views of Abnormal Behavior 472
Contemporary Views of Abnormal Behavior 474
The DSM-IV 474
The Problem of Stigma 475
The Concept of Insanity 475
Anxiety Disorders 477
Phobias 478
Generalized and Panic Anxiety Disorders 478
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder 480
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders 482
Somatoform Disorders 482
Somatization Disorders and Hypochondriasis 483
Conversion Disorders and Somatoform Pain
Disorders 483
Dissociative Disorders 484
Depersonalization 484
Dissociative Amnesia and Fugue 484
4.
Dissociative Identity Disorder (Multiple Personality) 485
Mood Disorders 487
Major Depression 487
Human Diversity: Ethnic and Gender Differences in
Depression and Suicide 490
Bipolar Disorder 491
Schizophrenia 493
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder 495
Personality Disorders 496
Schizoid Personality Disorder 496
Antisocial Personality Disorr' 197
Other Personality Disorder! j7
Atypical and Abnormal Sexual Behavior 500
Transvestism and Transsexualism 500
Fetishism 501
Sexual Sadism and Masochism 501
Voyeurism and Exhibitionism 501
Forced Sexual Behavior 502
Sexual Dysfunction and Sexual Health 505
Dysfunctions of Sexual Desire 505
Dysfunctions of Sexual Arousal 505
Orgasm Dysfunctions 506
SUMMARY 508
chapter fifteen
Therapies 510
Prologue 510
Definition of Psychotherapy 511
Ethical Standards for Psychotherapy 512
Psychoanalysis 513
Techniques of Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy 513
Excerpt from Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy 515
Interpersonal Psychotherapy for Depression 515
Humanistic Psychotherapy 518
Client-Centered Psychotherapy 518
Excerpt from Client-Centered Psychotherapy 519
Gestalt Psychotherapy 520
Cognitive-Behavior Therapy 521
Fear Reduction Methods 522
Behavioral Activation and Social Skills Training 522
Excerpt from Social Skills Training 523
Cognitive Restructuring 525
Excerpt from Cognitive Restructuring 526
Group and Family Therapy 528
Group Therapy 528
Family Therapy 529
Human Diversity: Ethnic, Gender, and Sexual Issues in
Psychotherapy 530
Medical Therapies 531
Drug Therapy 531
Dietary Therapies 532
Electroconvulsive Therapy 533
Transcranial Stimulation 533
Psychosurgery 533
• Application of Psychology: What to Do If You Think You
Need Help 536
SUMMARY 538
part seven
Social Context
chapter sixteen
Social Psychology 539
Prologue 539
Definition of Social Psychology 540
Groups and Social Influence 541
Deindividuation 541
Uninvolved Bystanders 541 ;
Working and Solving Problems in Groups 542
Conformity, Social Roles, and Obedience 544
The Positive Side of Groups 549
Attitudes and Persuasion 550
Origins of Attitudes 550
Persuasion and Attitude Change 551
Behavior and Attitude Change:
Cognitive Dissonance Theory 555
Prejudice and Stereotypes 557
Ph about College Students
with Physical Challenges 560
Interpersonal Attraction: Friendship and Love 562
Process of Person Perception 563
Characteristics of the Other Person In Interpersonal
Attraction 564
Characteristics of the Perceiver 566
Extraneous Factors in Person Perception 568
Maintaining Relationships 569
SUMMARY 572
chapter seventeen
Psychology Applied to Business
and Other Professions 574
Prologue 574
Applied Fields of Psychology 575
Psychology and Work 576
Employee Selection and Evaluation 576
Validity of Job Selection Measures 581
Fairness in Employee Selection 582
Job Satisfaction, Happiness, and Productivity 585
Human Diversity: Gender Differences in Leadership 587
Human Factors Engineering 588
Health Psychology in the Workplace 591
Environmental Psychology 592
Office and Workspace Design 593
Architectural Design of Living Units 593
Sustainability and Environmental Protection 595
Psychology and Law 600
Characteristics of Defendants and Plaintiffs 600
Characteristics of Jury Members 601
Psychological Factors in Presenting Evidence 603
Interrogating Criminal Suspects 603
Psychology and Education 605
Direct Instruction 605
Mastery Learning and Intelligent Tutoring Systems 606
Motivating Learning in the Classroom 607
Criterion-Referenced Testing 607
Mainstreaming: Education for Persons with Soecial
Needs 608
Appendix A-1
Glossary G-1
References R-1
Credits C-1
Name Index NI-1
Subject Index SI-1