Managing the flow of technology: technology transfer and the dissemination of technological information within the R & D organization/ Thomas J. Allen

CONTENTS
Preface to the Paperback Edition xi
Acknowledgments xvii
1 Introduction 1
Information Flow in Science and Technology 2
The Information Explosion 6
User Studies 7
The Present Research and Purpose of This Volume 8
Notes 10
2 The Research Program 11
Phase 1: The Study of Parallel or Twin Projects 11
Phase 2: Studies of Communication Networks Structure 32
Summary 33
Notes 34
3 The Communication System in Technology: An Overview 35
Distinguishing Engineers from Scientists 35
The Nature o f Technology 39
Bureaucratic Organization 40
Communication Patterns in Science and Technology 44
The Relation Between Science and Technology 46
Notes 57
4 The Technological Literature 58
Allocation of Time for Literature Use 58
Literature as an Idea Source 63
Use of the Literature in Problem Definition 65
Sources of Ideas and Performance 67
A More Detailed Examination of"Written Media 70
The Formal Engineering Literature 71-
Informal Written Channels 87
Comparison of Formal and Informal Written Channels 96
Notes 97
Contents iv
5 The Importance of Conrmnunication Within the Labora
tory 99
Organizational Colleagues as Sources of Information 99
The Twin Projects 100
Consulting with Organizational Colleagues 101
Variation over Time 101
Technical Ideas Originating Within the Organization 104
Internal Consulting for Other Functions in Technical Problem
Solving 106
Sources of Ideas and Performance 108
The Internal Consulting Study 110
Diversity in Communication 115
Intensity versus Diversity 121
Summary of the Evidence 122
Notes 125
6 Communications Among Organizations 126
Outsiders as Sources of Information 126
The Twin Projects 127
Time Spent in Personal Contact Outside the Laboratory 128
Ideas from Outside Sources 130
Use of Outsiders to Aid in Problem Definition 132
The Contribution of Outsiders 134
The Technologicail Gatekeeper 141
Notes 180
7 Structuring Communication Networks 1: The Influence of
Formal and Informal Organization 182
Barriers to Promoting Internal Consultation 182
The Decision to Use a Channel 184
First Source Selection 184
The Effect of Experience 187
The Order of Search in Information Seeking 188
The Nature of the Consulting Process 191
Strategies
for Reducing Cost 195
The Influence of Organization on Communication Patterns 206
Contents
The Formal Organization 211
The Informal Organization 220
The Impact of Status on Communication 228
Notes 233
8 Structuring Organizational Communication Networks 2: The
Influence of Architecture on Communication 234
Propinquity and Behavior 234
Research Method 235
Results 236
Organizational Bonds 240
Office Arrangements 242
Vertical Separation 242
Interaction-Promoting Facilities 248
An Experiment in Laboratory Design 249
Notes 265
9 AField Experiment to Improve Communication: The Non-
territorial Office 266
The Effect of Indirect Travel Routes on Communication
Probability 266
The Nonterritorial Office Experiment 269
Intradepartmental Communication Patterns 279
The Territorial Imperative Revisited 281
Total Floor Space 285
Interdepartmental Communication 286
Performance of the Department 288
Conclusions from the Experiment 290
Notes 292
10 Where Are We? 293
Scientific and Technological Information Policy 293
Organizational Behavior 294
Contents
Appendix 296
The Time Allocation Form 296
The Solution Development Record 298
The Communication Survey Questionnaire 300