Foundations of behavioural research/ Fred Nichols Kerlinger and Howard Bing Lee.

Contents
Part One The Language and Approach of Science
Chapter 1 Science and the Scientific Approach
Science and Common Sense 4
Four Methods of Knowing 6
Science and Its Functions 8
The Aims of Science, Scientific Explanation, and Theory 11
Scientific Research: A Definition 14
The Scientific Approach 15
Problem-Obstade-Idea 15
Hypothesis 15
Reasoning-Deduction 15
Obsei~cation-Test-Expei-hnent 17
Chapter Summary 19
Study Suggestions 20
Chapter 2 Problems and Hypotheses
Problems 24
Criteria of Problems and Problem Statements 25
Hypotheses 26
The Importance of Problems and Hypotheses 27
Virtues of Problems and Hypotheses 28
Problems, Values, and Definitions 30
Generality and Specificity of Problems and Hj'potheses 31
The Multivariable Nature of Behavorial Research and Problems 32
Concluding Remarks: The Special Power of Hypotheses 33
Chapter Summary 34
Study Suggestions 3 5
Chapter 3 Constructs, Variables, and Definitions
Concepts and Constructs 42
Variables 42
Constitutive and Operational Definitions of Constructs and Variables 43
Types of Variables 48
Independent and Dependent Variables 48
Active and Attribute Variables 53
Continuous and Categorical Variables 54
Constructs, Observables, and Latent Variables 56
Examples of Variations and Operational Definitions 57
Chapter Summary 61
Study Suggestions 62
Part Two Sets, Relations, and Variance
Chapter 4 Sets
Subsets b6
Set Openitions 67
The Universiil and Knipt)' Sets; Set Negation 6S
Set Diagrams 69
Set Operations with .Vltne Than Iwo Sets 70
Partitions ami Ch-oss Partitions 71
Levels of Discourse 74
Chapter Suninvar)' 77
Study Suggestions 78
Chapter 5 Relations
Relations as Sets of Ordered Pairs 82
Determining Relations in Research 85
Rules of Correspondence and Mapping 87
Some Ways to Study Relations 88
Graphs 88
Tables 88
Graphs and Correlation 92
Research Examples 95
iMultivariate Relations and Regression 98
Some Logic of Maltivariate Inquiry 98
Multiple Relations and Regression 100
Chapter Summary 101
Study Suggestions 101
Chapter 6 Variance and Covariance
Calculation of Means and Variances 104
Kinds of Variance 106
Population and Saittple Variances 106
Systematic Variance 107
Between-Gronps (Experimental) Variance 107
Error Variance 110
An Example of Syste?natic and Error Variance 111
A Snbtractive Danonstration: Removing Benveen-Gronps Variance from Total
I irriance 114
A Recap of Removing Between-Group \'ariance from Total Variance 117
Components ofViriance 1 18
Covariance 119
The Computer Addendum 12 2
Chapter Summaiy 128
fitudy Suggestions 129
Part Three Probability, Randomness, and Sampling
Chapter 7 Probability
Definition of Probabilit}' 134
Sample Space, Sample Points, and Events 135
Determining Probabilities witli Coins 138
An Experiment with Dice 139
Some Formal Theoiy 141
Compound Events and Their Probabilities 143
Independence, Adutual Exclusivcness, and Exhaustiveness 145
Conditional Probability' 150
Definition of Conditional Probability 150
An Academic Example 15 2
BayeP Theorem: Revising Probabilities 155
Example 156
Chapter Summaiy 158
Study Suggestions 159
Chapter 8 Sampling and Randomness
Sampling, Random Sampling, and Representativeness 164
Randomness 167
An Example of Random Sampling 167
Randomization 169
A Senatorial Randomization Demonstration 171
Sample Size 175
Kinds of Samples 17 8
Sotne Books on Sampling 182
Chapter Summaiy 183
Study Suggestions 183
Computer Program Listing to Generate Table S.2 186
Part Four Analysis, Interpretation, Statistics, and Inference
Chapter 9 Principles of Analysis and Interpretation
Frequencies and Continuous 193
Rules of Categorization 194
Kjnds of Statistical /Vnalysis 198
Erequency Distributions 199
Graphs and Graphing 200
Measures of Central Tendency and Variability 202
Measures of Relations 203
Analysis of Differences 204
Analysis of Variance and Related Methods 205
Profile Analysis 207
Multivariate A nalysis 208
Indices 211
Social Indicators 213
The Interpretation of Research Data 214
Aclcff/ituy ofRfsamh Design, .1 Ictlwtlolo^', Mcdsiircmcut, uml Annlysis 215
mid Uuoncliisivc Results 216
Uiihypnthcsizi'd Rc/iifioiis mid l^iuiuth'ipiitcd hindiums 216
Prunf\ Pivhiihilit}', mid hiterprctiition 2 IS
Chapter Summary 21
Study Suggestions 219
Chapter 10 The Analysis of Frequencies
Data and V^triahle Terminology 223
Crosstabs: Definitions and Purpose 224
Simple Crosstabs and Rules for Crosstab Construction 225
Calculation of Percentages 227
Statistical Significance and the x" Ibst 229
Levels of Statistical Significance 232
Types of Crosstabs and lables 236
Onc-Diniciisioiuil Tubii's 2 36
Tivo-Dhncnsiuiuil T/ddcs 237
Tu'o-Dm/ciisiomil Tiddcs, ''True" Diehotomies, mid Contimioiis Mensures
Three- mid k-Diviensioiui! Tables 240
Specification 241
Crosstabulations, Relations, and Ordered Pairs 243
The Odds Ratio 246
Miiltivariate Analysis of Frequency Data 247
Computer Addendum 248
Chapter Summary 253
Study Suggestions 254
Chapter I I Statistics; Purpose, Approach, Method
The Basic Approach 257
Definition and Purpose of Statistics 258
Binomial Statistics 260
The \^iriance 262
The Law of Large Numbers 264
The Normal Probabilit>' Cuiwe and the Standard Deviation 265
Interpretation of Data Using the Normal Probabiliti' Cuiwe-Frequency Data 268
Interpretation of Data Using the Normal Prohabiliti' Curve-Continuous 1 )ata 269
Chapter Summary 272
Study Suggestions 273
Chapter 12 Testing Hypotheses and the Standard Error 275
Examples: Differences Between Means 276
Absolute and Relative Differences 277
Correlation Coefficients 278
Hypothesis Testing; Substantive and Null Hypotheses 279
The General Nature of a Standard Error 282
A Monte Carlo Demonstration 283
The Pi'ocedurc 283
Gcvcralizatiovs 285
The Central Limit Theorem 286
The Standard Error of the Differences betxveen Means 287
Statistical Inference 290
Testing Hypotheses and the Two Types of Errors 291
The Five Steps of Hypothesis Testing 295
Sample Size Determination 295
Example 297
Chapter Summary 299
Study Suggestions 300
Part Five Analysis of Variance
Chapter 1 3 Analysis of Variance: Foundations
Variance Breakdown: A Simple Example 308
The t-Ratio Approach 312
The Analysis of Variance Approach 313
An Example of a Statistically Significant Difference 315
Calculation of One-Way Analysis of Variance 317
A Research Example 321
Strength of Relations: Correlation and the Analysis of Variance 322
Broadening the Structure: Post Hoc Tests and Planned Comparisons 327
Post Hoc Tests 328
Planned Comparisons 328
Computer Addendum 331
t-Ratio or t-Test on SPSS 3 31
One-lVay ANOVA on SPSS 336
Addendum 340
Chapter Summary 340
Suidy Suggestions 341
Chapter 14 Factorial Analysis of Variance
Two Research Examples 346
The Nature of Factorial Analysis of Variance 350
The Meaning of Interaction 352
A Simple Fictitious Example 352
Interaction: An Example 359
Kinds of Interaction 362
Notes of Caution 365
Interaction and Interpretation 367
Factorial Analysis of\tiriance with Three or xMore Variables 368
Advantages and Virtues of Factorial Design and Analysis of\ariance 371
Factorial Analysis of Variance: Control 372
Research Examples 374
Race, Sex, ami College Admissions 374
The Effect of Gemler, Type of Rape, ami Iiifonmitioii on Perception 375
Student Essays and Teacher Evalnation 376
Computer Addendum 377
Chapter Summart' 384
Study Suggestions 385
Chapter 1 5 Analysis of Variance: Correlated Groups
Definition of the Problem 388
A Fictitious Example 389
An Explanatory Digirssion 390
Reexamination oj Table 15.2 Data 393
Further Considerations 394
Extracting Variances by Subtraction 397
Removal of Systetnatic Sources of Variance 398
Additional Correlated Analysis of Variance Designs 400
Research Examples 403
Ironic Effects of Trying to Relax Under Stress 403
Learning Sets of Isopods 403
Business: Bidding Behavior 405
Cotnputer Addendum 406
Chapter Summar)' 409
Study Suggestions 409
Chapter 16 Nonparametric Analysis of Variance and Related Statistics
Parametric and Nonparametric Statistics 414
Assumption of Normality 415
Homogeneity of Variance 416
Continuity and Equal Intervals ofMeasures 416
Independence oj Observations 417
Nonparametric Analysis of Viiriance 418
One-Way Analysis of Variance: The Kruskal-Wallis Test 418
Two-Way Analysis of Variance: The Friedman Test 420
The Coefficient of Concordance, IV 42 3
Properties of Nonparametric Methods 424
Computer Addendum 425
The Kruskal-l'Vallis Test on SPSS 425
The Friedtnan Test on SPSS 430
Chapter Summary 431
Study Suggestions 431
I
Part Six Designs of Research
Chapter 1 7 Ethical Considerations in Conducting Behavioral Science Research
Fiction and Realit)' 437
A 439
So7//e General GnideUucs 442
G/iidelincsfiwn the American Psy'choiogical Association 443
General Considerations 443
The Paiticipant at Minimal Risk 443
Fairness, Responsibility, and bifoimicd Consent 444
Deception 444
Debriefing 444
Freedom fro7n Coeirion 445
Protection of Paiticipants 445
Confidentiality' 445
Ethics of Annual Research 446
Chapter Sunimar\^ 447
Study Suggestions 448
Chapter 18 Research Design: Purpose and Principles
Purposes of Research Design 450
An Exa7nple 451
A Stronger Design 452
Research Designs as Variance Control 455
A Controversial Exn7nple 456
Maximization of Experimental Variance 459
Control of Extraneous Variables 460
Minimization of Error Variance 462
Chapter Summar)' 463
Study Suggestions 464
Chapter 19 Inadequate Designs and Design Criteria
Experimental and Nonexperimental Approaches 466
Symbolism and Definitions 467
Faulty Designs 468
Measnre/nent, Histoiy, Matin-ation 470
The Regression Eff ect 470
Criteria of Research Design 472
Answei' Reseaixh Questions? 472
Control of Extraneous Independent Variables 47 3
Generalizability 474
Internal and External I dlidity 475
Chapter Summar)- 478
Study Suggestions 479
Chapter 10 General Designs of Research
Conceptual Foundations of Research Design 482
A Preliniinaiy Note: Fxperinienial Designs and Analysis of Wiriance 484
The Designs 485
The Notion of the Control Group ninl Extensions ofDesip;n 20.1 486
Matching versus Randomization 48'^
d latching hy Ecjiiating Participants 4'X)
The Fre/jueniy Disirilmtion Matching Method 491
\latching by Holding I ariahles Constant 492
Matching by Incorporating the Nuisance I ariable Into the Research Design
Participant as Oven (Control 493
Additional Design F.xtensions: Design 20.3 Using a Pretest 493
Difference Scores 495
Chapter Suniinar)- 499
Study Suggestions 500
Chapter 21 Research Design Applications: Randomized Groups and
Correlated Groups
Simple Randomized Subjects Design 502
A Research Example 502
DoUnski and Natvrat: Eear-then-Relief and Compliance 502
Factorial Designs 504
Factorial Designs with More than Two I driab/es 505
Research Examples of Factorial Designs 505
Sigall and Ostrove: . Ittractiveness and Crime 506
Quilici and Mayer: Examples. Schema and Learning 506
Evan/pie I 507
Example 2 507
E.xai//ple 3 507
Example 4 507
Hoyt: Teacher Knowledge ai/d Pupil Achievement 508
Evaluation of Randomized Subjects Designs 510
Correlated Groups 511
The General Pa/-adig/n 512
U//its 513
One Group Repeated Trials Design 513
Two g/'oups, Expern/zental Group-Control Group Designs 514
Research Examples of Ciorrelated Group Designs 515
Miller and DiCa/ ii: Learni//g of. luto//o///ic Functions 516
Tipper, EEsenbe/g, and IVeaver: Effects ofP/'actice on Selective Attention 518
Multigroup Correlated Groups Designs 519
Units Variance 519
Factorial Correlated Ciroups 520
Suedfeld and Rank: Revolutiontiry Leaders and Conceptual Con/plexity 521
PeiTine, Lisle, and Tucker: Offer of Help and Willingness to Seek Support 522
.\naly.sis oFCovariance 523
Clark and Wafhcrg: Massive Rcinfoirc/ncnt and Reading Achievanent 524
Research Design and Analysis: Concluding Remarks 525
Computer Addendum 526
Chapter Summary 528
Study Suggestions 529
Part Seven Types of Research
Chapter 11 Quasi-Experimental and N = 1 Designs of Research
Compromise Designs a.k.a. Quasi Experimental Designs 536
Nonefjitivalent Control Group Design 536
No-Treannent Control Group Design 537
Research Examples 543
Nelson, Hall, and Walsh-Bowers: Noneqiiivalent Control Group Design 543
Chapman and McCauley: Quasi-Kxperiment 543
Time Designs 5-44
Multiple Time Series Design 546
Single Subject Experimental Designs 546
Some Advantages of Doing Single-Subject Studies 548
Some Disadvantages of Using Single-Subject Designs 549
Some Single-Subject Research Paradigms 550
The Stable Baseline: An Important Goal 550
Designs that Use the Withdrawal of Treatment 550
The A BA Design 5 5 0
Repeating Treatments (ABAB Designs) 551
A Research Example 552
Powell and Nelson: Example ofan A BAB Design 552
Using iV IIIIt ipie Baselines 553
Chapter Summary 554
Studv Suggestions 555
Chapter 23 Nonexperimental Research
Definition 558
Basic Difference Between Experimental and Nonexperimental Research 558
Self-Selection and Nonexperimental Research 560
Large-Scale Nonexperimental Research 561
Determinants of School Achievement 5 62
Response Style Diff erences betiveen East Asian and North American Students
Smaller Scale Nonexperimental Research 564
Cochran and Mays: Sex, Lies, and HIU 564
Elbert: Impaired Reading and Written Language in Attention Deficit Children 5
Testing Alternative Hypotheses 566
Evaluation of Nonexperimental Research 568
The Limitations of Nonexperimental Interpretation 568
The I alue of Nonexperimental Research 569
Conclusions 570
Chapter Summary 571
Study Suggestions 571
Chapter 24 Laboratory Experiments, Field Experiments, and Field Studies 575
A Laboratort' Experiment: Miller Studies of the Learning of Visceral Responses 576
A Field Experiment: Rind and Bordias Study on the Effects of a Seifer's
"Thank You" and Personalization on Restaurant Tipping 577
.d Field Study: SetvcoiuFs Benuiugton College Study 578
Churueteristicx uud Criteriu of Luhomtory Experimeuts, Field Kxperiiinoits,
uud Field Studies 579
Strengths uud Weaknesses of Luhorutoiy Experiments 579
Purposes of the Laboratory Experiment 581
The Field Experiment 581
Strengths and Weaknesses of Field Studies 5 82
Field Studies 585
Types of Field Studies 586
Strengths and Weaknesses of Field Studies 586
Qualitative Research 588
Addendum 593
The Holistic Experimental Paradigm 593
Chapter Summaiy 595
Study Suggestions 596
Chapter 25 Survey Research
Types (jf Surveys 601
Interviews and Schedules 601
Other Types of Survey Research 603
The iVIethodology of Sun ey Research 604
Checking Survey Data 607
Three Studies 608
Verha and Nie: Political Participation in America 608
Doctcr and Prince: A Suit'ey of Male Cross-Dressers 609
Sue, Fujino, Hu, Takeuchi, and Zane: Community Health Services
for Ethnic Minorities 610
Applications of Sur\ey Research to Education 611
Advantages and Disadvantages of Surx'ey Research 613
Meta-A na lysis 614
Chapter Summary 618
Study Suggestions 619
Part Eight Measurement 621
Chapter 26 Foundations of Measurement 623
Definition of Measurement 625
Measurement and "Reality" Isomorphism 627
Properties, Constructs, and Indicants of Objects 629
Levels of Measurement and Scaling 630
Classification and Emmieration 631
Nominal Measurement 632
Ordinal Measurement 632
Interval Measurement (Scales) 634
Ratio Measurement (Scales) 635
Comparisons of Scales: Practical Considerations and Statistics 635
Chapter Summar)' 638
Study Suggestions 639
Chapter 17 Reliability
Definitions of Reliability 642
Theory of Reliability 645
Two Coynputational Examples 648
The Interpretation of the Reliabilit)' Coeficient 652
The Stanadard Error of the Mean and the Standard Error of Measurement
The Improvement of Reliability 659
The Value of Reliabilit)' 662
Chapter Summar)' 663
Study Suggestions 664
Chapter 18 Validity
Types of Validity 666
Content Validity and Content Validation 667
Criterion-Related Validity and Validation 668
Decision Aspects of Validity 669
Multiple Predictors and Criteria 670
Construct Validity and Construct Validation 670
Convergence and Dism?ninal>ility 671
A Hypothetical Example of Construct Validation 672
The Multitrait-Multimethod Matrix Method 674
Research Examples of Concuirent Validation 676
Research Exa?nples of Construct Validation 676
A Measure ofAnti-Seinitistn 677
A Measure of Personality 677
The Measurement of Democracy 67 8
Other Methods of Construct Validation 679
A Variance Definition of Validity: The Variance Relation of Reliability
and Validity 680
Statistical Relation between Reliability and Validity 684
The Validity and Reliability of Psychological and Eduational Measurement
Instruments 685
Chapter Summary 685
Study Suggestions 686
Part Nine Methods of Observation and Data Collection
Chapter 29 Interviews and Interview Schedules
Inter\'iews and Schedules as Tools of Science 693
The Ivterciev) 693
The Inten'iew Schedule 694
Khnh of Schedule Infoniiutioii and Items 694
Fixed-Alternative lte7ns 695
Example 695
Open-Ended Items 695
Example 696
Scale Items 696
Criteria of Question-Writing 697
The Value of Interviews and Inter\'iew Schedules 699
The Focus Group and Group Intei-viewing: Another Interviewing Method 700
Some Examples of Focus Group Research 701
Chapter Summary 702
Study Suggestions 703
Classical Works 703
Moi'e Recent Woi'ks 703
"Nonnar Studies 704
Chapter 30 Objective Tests and Scales
Objectivity and Objective Methods of Obsen'ation 708
Tests and Scales: Definitions 709
Types of Objective Measures 7 09
Intelligence and Aptitude Tests 709
Achievement Tests 710
Personality Measures 711
Attitude Scales 112
Value Scales 715
Types of Objective Scales and Items 716
Examples 716
Agi-eenient-Disagreettient Items 717
Rajtk Order Items and Scales 118
Forced-Choice Items and Scales 719
Ipsative and Normative Measures 721
Choice and Construction of Objective Measures 723
Chapter Summary 724
Study Suggestions 725
Chapter 3 1 Observations of Behavior and Sociometry ..
Problems in Observing Behavior 728
The Observer 728
Validity and Reliability 729
Categories 731
Units of Behavior 731
Cooperative/less 732
Observer Inference 732
Generality or Applicability 733
Sampling of Behavior 734
Rating Scales 736
Types of Rating Scales 737
Examples 737
M'^eaknesses of Rating Scales 738
Examples of Observation Systems 739
Time Sampling of Play Behavior of Plearing-lmpaired Children 739
Observation and Evaluation of College Teaching 740
Assessment of Behavioral Obsen'ation 741
Sociometry 742
Socio'/netiy and Sociometric Choice 742
Example 742
Exainple 743
Methods of Sociometric A nalysis 743
Sociometric Matrices 743
Sociogratns or Directed Graphs 745
Socioinetric Indices 746
Research Uses of Sociometiy 747
Prejudice in Schools 748
Socmnetiy and Stereotypes 748
Sociometiy and Social Status 748
Race, Belief, and Sociometric Choice 748
Chapter Summary 749
Study Suggestions 751
Part Ten Multivariate Approaches 753
Chapter 32 Multiple Regression Analysis; Foundations
Three Research Examples 755
Simple Regression /Vnalysis 757
Multiple Linear Regression 761
An Example 761
The Multiple Correlation Coefficient 768
Tests of Statistical Significance 771
Significance Tests of Individual Regression Weights 773
Interpretation ofMultiple Regression Statistics 773
Statistical Significance of the Regression and R- 773
Relative Contributions to Y of the Xs 774
Other Analnic and Interpretative Problems 777
Research Examples 780
DDT and Bald Eagles 780
bijldtion Bias in Sclf-Asscswtcnt ILxiiniinations 781
M/i/tipk Rcgrcsm/i Analysis and Scientific Research 782
Chapter Summar\- 783
Study Suggestions 784
Chapter 33 Multiple Regression, Analysis of Variance,
and Other Multivariate Methods 787
One-Way Analysis of \'ariance and Multiple Regression Analysis 788
Coding and Data Analysis 792
Factorial Analyis of Variance, Analysis of Covariance, and Related Analyses 795
Analysis of Covariance 796
Discriminant Analysis, Canonical Correlation, Multivariate Analysis of Variance, and
Path Analysis 799
Disaiminant Analysis 799
Canonical Correlation 800
Research Examples 802
Multivariate Analysis of I hriance 802
Path Analysis 803
Ridge Regression, Logistic Regression, and Log-linear Analysis 805
Ridge Regression 805
The Problem uith Ordinaiy-Least-Sqnares (OLS) 806
Research Example 808
Logistic Regression 808
A Research Example 810
Mnltrway Contingency Tables and Log-Linear Analysis 811
Research Example 816
Multivariate Analysis and Behavioral Research 817
Chapter Summary 818
Study Suggestions 820
Chapter 34 Factor Analysis 825
Foundations 826
A Brief Histoiy 826
A Hypothetical Example 827
Factor Matrices and Factor Loadings 829
Some Factor Theoiy 831
Graphical Representation of Factors and Factor Loadings 833
Extraction and Rotation of Factors, Factor Scores, and Second-Order
Factor Analysis 834
The Comminiality and Number of Factors Problems 83 5
The Principal Factor Method 836
Rotation and Simple Structure 839
Second-Order Factor Analysis 844
Factor Scores 845
Research Examples 846
The Comrcy Personality Scales 846
Thnrstone Factorial Study oj Intelligence 847
Fluid and Ciystallized Intelligence 847
Confinnatoiy Factor Analysis 849
Research Kvantple Using Confinnatoty Factor Analysis 851
Factor Analysis and Scientific Research 854
Chapter Summary 857
Study Suggestions 858
Chapter 35 Analysis of Covariance Structures
Covariance Structures, Latent "V^iriables, and Testing Theory 864
Testing Alternative Factor Hypotheses: Duality Versus Bipolarit}'
of Social Attitudes 868
Latent Variable Influences; The F"ull Eqs System 876
Setting Up the EQS Structure 878
Research Studies 880
Verba and Nie: Political Participation in America 881
Brecht, Dracup, Moser, and Riegel: Relationship of Marital Quality
and Psychosocial Adjustment 882
Conclusions—and Reservations 884
Chapter Summary 887
Study Suggestions 888