Educational research: an introduction / Meredith D. Gall, Joyce P. Gall, Walter R. Borg.

Part I: Introduction
1. The Nature of Educational Research
Contributions of Research to Knowledge about Education
Description
Prediction
Improvement
Explanation
Uses of Theory
Approaches to Theory Development
Example of Theory Testing
Application of Research to Educational Practice
Limitations of Research Knowledge
The Importance of Basic Research
Funding for Educational Research
Epistemological Issues in Educational Research
Positivism and Postpositivism
Constructivism
Objective and Constructed Realities
Cases and Populations
Numerical and Verbal Representations of Social Reality
Mechanical, Interpretive, and Structural Views of Causation
Postmodernism
Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Mixed-Methods Research
A Definition of Research
Learning How to Do Educational Research
Self-Check Test
Part II: Planning a Research Study
2. The Research Process: From Proposal to Final Report
Introduction
IdentifS'ing a Research Problem
Reading the Research Literature
Doing Theor\'-Based Research
Example of Theory-Based Research
Ad van tages of Theory- Based Research
Replicating and Extending Previous Research
Working on a Team Project
Preparing a Research Proposal
Introductory' Section
Research Hypotheses in Quantitative Research
Research Hypotheses in Qualitative Research
Research Questions and Purposes
Literature Review Section
Research Design Section
Research Methods Section
Data Analysis Section
Protection of Human Subjects Section
Time Line Section
Conducting a Pilot Study
Using the Proposal in Writing the Dissertation
Format
Front Matter
Introductory Chapter
Literature Review Chapter
Research Method Chapter
Results Chapter
Discussion Chapter
Back Matter
Preparing a Journal Article
Preparing a Paper for a Professional Meeting
Recommendations for Planning and Reporting Research
Self-Check Test
3. Ethics and Site Relations in Educational Research
The Importance of Ethics and Site Relations in Educational Research
Typical Aspects of Educational Research That May Raise Ethical Concerns
Planning and Design of Research
Researcher Qualifications '
Conflict of Interest
Neglect of Important Topics
Research Methodology
Control Group Experience
Use of Deception
Use of Tests
Termination of Treatment Conditions
Data Collection and Analysis
Reporting of Research
Authorship
Plagiarism
Partial or Dual Publication
Formal Regulation of Research Ethics
Statements of Ethical Principles
Government Regulations
Ethical Standards of the American Educational Research Association
Ethical Principles of the American Psychological Association
Institutional Review Boards' Role in Ensuring Research Ethics
The Design and Purpose of an IRB
Examples of Research Situations That Call for IRB Review
Criteria for IRB Approval of a Research Project
Assessment of the Risk-Benefit Ratio
Selection of Participants
Obtaining Informed Consent
Maintenance of Privacy and Confidentiality
Tireatment of Vulnerable Populations
Site Relations in Educational Research
Location of a Research Site
Securing Permission and Cooperation
Building a Relationship with the Site
Dealing with Human Relations Issues
Recommendations for Ensuring That a Research Study
Is Ethical, Legal, and Harmonious
Self-Check Test
4. Reviewing the Literature
Purposes of a Literature Review
Major Steps in a Literature Review
Searching Preliminary Sources
Types of Documents Indexed by Preliminary Sources
Content and Coverage of Online Preliminary Sources
Popular Online Preliminary Sources
Search Strategies in Using Preliminary Sources
Displaying Records in Preliminary Sources
Using Secondary Sources
Reading Primary Sources
Classifying Primary Sources
Critical Evaluation of Research Studies
Synthesizing the Findings of Your Literature Review
Synthesizing Quantitative Research Findings
The Narrative Review
Vote Counting
The Chi-Square Method
Meta-Analysis and Effect Size
Synthesizing Qualitative Research Findings
Recommendations for Reviewing Research Literature
Self-Check Test
Part III: Research Methods
5. StatisticalTechniques
The Use of Statistics in Educational Research
Example of Statistical Analysis in a Research Study
The Need for Judgment in Statistical Analysis
Acquiring Statistical Expertise
Types of Scores
Continuous Scores
Age and Grade Equivalents
Standard Scores
Rank Scores
Categories
Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Central Tendency
Mean, Median, and Mode
Skewness
Categorical Data
Measures of Variability
Standard Deviation
Normal Curve
Other Measures of Variability
Correlational Statistics
Inferential Statistics
Generalizing from a Sample to a Population
The Null Hypothesis
Tests of Statistical Significance
Levels of Statistical Significance
Type I and Type II Errors
Interpretation of Significance Tests
Alpha and Probability Values
Misinterpretation of p Values
Criticisms of Significance Tests
Types of Significance Tests
Statistical Power Analysis
Supplements to Significance Tests
Confidence Limits
Replication of Research Results
Effect Size
Psychometric Statistics
Problems in Statistical Analysis
The Need for Exploratory Data Analysis
Stem-and-Leaf Displays
Advantages of Stem-and-Leaf Displays
Graphical Displays
Missing Data
The Unit of Statistical Analysis
Multilevel Analysis
Processing Statistical Data
Computer Hardware
Computer Software
Computer Consultants
Checking Data Analyses for Accuracy
Storing Research Data
Recommendations for Doing Statistical Analyses
Self-Check Test
6. Selecting a Sample
Sampling Logic in Research
Sampling in Quantitative Research
Defining the Population of Interest
Target and Accessible Populations
Inferential Leaps from a Sample to a Population
Determining Population Validity
Types of Probability Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
Systematic Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Example of Sampling a Phenomenon Rather Than Individuals
Nonprobability Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Determining Sample Size for a Quantitative Research Study
Sampling in Qualitative Research
Rationale of Purposeful Sampling
Appljdng Replication Logic
Types of Purposeful Sampling
Strategies to Select Cases Representing a Key Characteristic
Strategies Reflecting a Conceptual Rationale
Emergent Strategies
Strategy Lacking a Rationale
Determining the Number of Cases for a Qualitative Research Study
Volunteers in Research Samples
Characteristics of Research Volunteers
Volunteers in Research Requiring Parental Consent
Checking Volunteer Characteristics
Improving the Rate of Volunteering
Recommendations for Selecting a Research Sample
Self-Check Test
7. Collecting Research Data with Tests and Self-Report Measures
Use of Tests and Self-Report Measures in Educational Research
Characteristics of a Good Test in Research
Criteria for Judging the Quality of Tests ^
Objectivity
Standard Conditions of Administration and Scoring
Standards for Interpretation
Fairness
Test Validity
Evidence from Test Content
Evidence from Response Processes
Evidence from Internal Structure
Evidence from Relationship to Other Variables
Evidence from Consequences of Testing
Test Reliability
Types of Test Reliability
Use of Generalizability Theory
Standard Error of Measurement
Use of Item Response Theory
Approaches to Measurement
Standardized versus Locally Constructed Tests
Referenced Test Scores
Norm-Referenced Measurement
Criterion-Referenced Measurement
Individual-Referenced Measurement
Computer-Based Testing
Use of Computers in Test Development
Use of Computers in Test Administration, Scoring,
and Interpretation
Individual versus Group Testing
Types of Tests and Self-Report Measures
Measures of Performance
Intelligence Tests
Aptitude Tests
Achievement Tests
Diagnostic Tests
Performance Assessment
Measures of Personal Characteristics
Persontdity Inventories
Projective Techniques
Measures of Specific Personality Traits
Measures of Self-Concept
Measures of Learning Styles and Habits
Attitude Sceiles
Measures of Vocational Interest
Obtaining Information about Tests and Self-Report Measures
Searching Preliminary and Secondary Sources
Reading the Test Manual
Examining the Test Itself
Contacting the Test Developer
Using Tests or Self-Report Measures in a Research Project
Developing Your Own Test
Dealing with Resistance to Tests
Testing in Field Sites
Gaining the Cooperation of Test-Takers
Recommendations for Using Tests and Self-Report Measures in Research
Self-Check Test
8. Collecting Research Data with Questionnaires
and Interviews
Questionnaires and Interviews as Data-Collection Methods
Selecting between Questionnaires and Interviews
Validity and Reliability Issues
Survey Research
Steps in Constructing and Administering
a Reseeirch Questionnaire
Step 1: Defining Research Objectives
Step 2: Selecting a Sample
Step 3: Designing the Questionnaire
Anonymity of Respondents
Item Form
Use of Questionneiires in the Measurement of Attitudes
Web Questionnaires
Step 4: Pilot-Testing the Questionnaire
Step 5; Precontacting the Sample
Step 6: Writing a Cover Letter
Step 7: FoUowing Up with Nonrespondents
Step 8: Analyzing Questionnaire Data
Steps in Preparing and Conducting Research Interviews
Step 1: Defining the Purpose of the Interview
Key Informant Interviews
Survey Interviews
Focus Group Interviews
Step 2: Selecting a Sample
Step 3: Designing the Interview Format
Interview Formats in Quantitative Research
Interview Formats in Qualitative Research
Telephone Interviews
Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviews
Web Interviews
Step 4: Developing Questions
Step 5: Selecting and Training Interviewers
Distinctive Respondents
Respondents as Interviewers
"Ihaining of Interviewers
Step 6: Pilot-Testing the Interview
Step 7: Conducting the Interview
Interviewing Tasks
Recording Interview Data
Step 8: Analyzing Interview Data
Recommendations for Using a Questionnaire or an Interview Guide to
Collect Research Data
Self-Check Test
9. Collecting Research Data through Observation
and Content Analysis
Forms of Observation and Content Analysis
Reactive Observation in Quantitative Research
Defining Observational Variables
lypes of Observational Variables
Recording and Analyzing Observations
lypes of Recording Procedures
Selecting an Observation Recording Procedure
Standard Observation Forms
Audio and Video Recording
Use of Computers and Other Electronic Devices
Selecting and Training Observers
Determining Observer Agreement
Reducing Observer Effects
Types of Observer Effects
Reactive Observation in Qualitative Research
Purpose of Observation in Qualitative Research
Defining the Observer Role
Preparing for Observation
Determining the Focus of Observation
Gaining Entry into the Field Setting
Recording Observations
What Field Notes Should Include
Dealing with Observer Effects
Analyzing Qualitative Observational Data
Nonreactive Observation in Quantitative Research
Use of Unobtrusive Measures
Potential Limitations of Unobtrusive Measures
Nonreactive Observation in Qualitative Research
Content Analysis of Documents and Other Commimication Media
Content Analysis in Quantitative Research
Steps in Content Analysis
Analysis of Documents and Records in Qualitative Observation
Recommendations for Using Observational and
Content-Analysis Methods
Self-Check Test
Past IV: Quantitative Research Design
10. Nonexperimental Research: Descriptive
and Causal-Comparative Designs
Introduction
An Example from Medical Research
Descriptive Research Designs
The Purpose of Descriptive Research
Measurement in Descriptive Research
Statistics in Descriptive Research
Description of a Sample at One Point in Time
Longitudinal Description of a Sample
TVend Studies
Cohort Studies sjyju
Panel Studies
Cross-Sectional Studies
Causal-Comparative Research Designs
The Study of Cause-and-Effect Relationships
Example of a Causal-Comparative Research Study
Planning a Causal-Comparative Study
Statement of the Research Problem
Selecting Comparison Groups
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Statistical Analysis: The r Test
The rTest for the Difference between Means
The rTest for a Single Mean
Statistical Analysis: Analysis of Variance
Comparison of More Than Two Means
Analysis of Covariance
Multivariate Analysis of Variance
Tests for the Difference between Variances
Statistical Analysis: Nonparametric Tests
Advantages and Disadvantages of Nonparametric Tests
The Chi-Square Test
Other Nonparametric Tests
Interpretation of Causal-Comparative Findings
Recommendations for Doing Descriptive and Causal-Comparative Research
Self-Check Test
11. Nonexperimental Research: Correlational Designs
The Nature of Correlation
Types of Scattergrams
Positive Correlation
Negative Correlation
Absence of Correlation
The Mathematics of Correlation
Correlational Research Design
Correlation and Causality
Advantages and Uses of Correlational Research
Planning a Causal Relationship Study
Basic Research Design
The Problem
Selection of Research Participants
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Problems of Interpretation
Limitations of Causal Relationship Studies
Planning a Prediction Study
Types of Prediction Studies
Basic Research Design
The Problem
Selection of Research Participants
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Statistical Factors in Prediction Research
Group Prediction
Shrinkage
Bivariate Correlational Stadstics
Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient
Correlation Ratio
Adjustments to Correlation Coefficients
Correction for Attenuation
Correction for Restriction in Range
Part and Partial Correlation
Multivariate Correlational Statistics
Multiple Regression
A Research Example
Steps in a Multiple Regression Analysis
Multiple Correlation Coefficient
Coefficient of Determination
The Mathematics of Multiple Regression
Types of Multiple Regression
Cautions in Using Multiple Regression
Hierarchical Linear Modeling
Path Analysis
Steps in Path Analysis
Path Analysis Models
The Mathematics of Path Analysis
Path Analysis and Theory Testing
Factor Analysis
Factor Loadings and Factor Scores
Types of Factor Analysis
Structural Equation Modeling
Differential Analysis
Subgroup Analysis in Causal Relationship Studies
Moderator Variables in Prediction Studies
Interpretation of Correlation Coefficients
Statistical Significance of Correlation Coefficients
Interpreting the Magnitude of Correlation Coefficients
Recommendations for Doing Correlational Research
Self-Check Test
12. Experimental Research: Designs, Part 1
Introduction
Terminology in Experimental Design
Validity Problems in Experiments
Internal Validity of Experiments
External Validity of Experiments
Population Validity
Ecological Validity
Representative Design
Issues in Designing Experiments
Experimenter Bias
lireatment Fidelity
Strong versus Weak Experimental Tireatments
Random Assignment in Experiments
Single-Group Designs
The One-Shot Case Study
One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
Time-Series Design
Control-Group Designs with Random Assignment
Pretest-Posttest Control-Group Design
Posttest-Only Control-Group Design
One-Variable Multiple-Condition Design
Recommendations for Doing Experiments
Self-Check Test
13. E^qierimental Research: Designs, Part 2
Quasi-Experimental Designs
Static-Group Comparison Design
Nonequivalent Control-Group Design
Factorial Designs
TWo-Factor Experiments
Example of a Two-Factor Experiment
Solomon Four-Group Design
Example of a Solomon Four-Group Experiment
Variations in Factorial Eixperiments
Three-Factor Experiments
Manipulability of Independent Variables
Fixed and Random Factors
Assignment of Participants to Multiple Treatments
Single-Case Designs
Example of a Single-Case Experiment
General Design Considerations
Reliable Observation
Repeated Measurement
Description of Experimental Conditions
Baseline and Treatment Stability
Length of Baseline and Treatment Phases
A-B-A Designs
A-B Design
A-B-A and A-B-A-B Designs
Multiple-Baseline Designs
Example of a Multiple-Baseline Experiment
Statistical Analysis of Single-Case Data
External Validity of Single-Case Designs
Other Experimental Designs
Measurement of Change
Gain Scores
Statistical Analysis of Change
Multiple Regression
Analysis of Covariance and t Tests
Analysis of Variance for Repeated Measures
Recommendations for Doing Experiments
Self-Check Test
Part V: Approaches to Qualitative Research
14. Case Study Research
Importance of Case Study in Qualitative Research
Characteristics of Case Studies
Study of Particular Instances
In-Depth Study of the Case
Study of a Phenomenon in Its Real-Life Context
Representation of Emic and Etic Perspectives
Purposes of Case Studies
Description
Explanation
Evaluation
Designing a Case Study
Formulating a Research Problem
Selecting a Case
Defining the Role of the Case Study Researcher
Gaining Entry
Addressing Ethical Issues
Collecting Case Study Data
Personal Involvement in the Data-Collection Process
Analyzing Data during Data Collection
Ending Data Collection
Analyzing Case Study Data
Interpretational Analysis
Segmenting the Database
Developing Categories
Coding Segments
Grouping Category Segments
Drawing Conclusions
Structural Analysis
Reflective Analysis
Ensuring the Quality and Rigor of Qualitative Research
Strategies to Meet Users' Needs
Strategies to Ensure Thorough Data Collection
Strategies Reflecting Sound Research Design
Positivist Conceptions of the Validity and Reliability
of Case Study Research
Determining the Applicability of Case Study Findings
Reporting a Case Study
Finalizing Definition of the Case
Reflective Reporting
Analytic Reporting
Advemtages and Disadvantages of Case Study Research
Recommendations for Doing Case Studies
Self-Check Test
Contents
15. Qualitative Research Traditions
Qualitative Research Traditions in Educational Research
The Characteristics of Qualitative Research Traditions
Traditions Involving Investigation of Lived Experience
Cognitive Psychology
A Study of Differences in the Knowledge Structures of Experts and Novices
Phenomenology
Phenomenographic Research
Life History Research
Traditions Involving Investigation of Society and Culture
Ethnography
Phenomena Studied by Ethnographers
Doing an Ethnographic Study
Issues Facing Ethnography
Cultural Studies and Critical-Theory Research
Assumptions of the Cultural Studies Tradition
Methods of Inquiry
Focus on Issues Relevant to Education
Theory Building in Cultural Studies
Strengths and Weaknesses of Cultural Studies
Ethnomethodology
Traditions Involving Investigation of Language and Communication
Hermeneutics
Semiotics
Structuralism and Poststructuralism
Recommendations for Designing a Study Based on a Qualitative Research TVadition
Self-Check Test
16. Historical Research
Importance of Historical Research in Education
Subject Matter of Historical Research
Impact of Historical Research on Education
A Subject in the Curriculum
A Foundation for Developing New Knowledge
and Policies Related to Education
A Variable Affecting the Validity of Research Findings
A Basis for Evaluating Educational Programs
A Tool in Planning the Future
Historiography and the Stages of Historical Research
Defining a Problem for Historical Research
Studying Historical Sources
Formulating a Search Plan
Searching Preliminary Sources
Reading Secondary Sources
Studying Primary Sources
Recording Information from Historical Sources
Recording and Analyzing Quantitative Data
Evaluation of Historical Sources
External Criticism
Internal Criticism
Interpretation in Historical Research
Use of Concepts to Interpret Historical Information
Historians as Interpreters
Causal Inference in Historical Research
Generalizability of Historical Evidence
Writing a Historical Research Report
Examples of Historical Research in Education
A Micropolitical Perspective on the Education of Mexican Americans
in a South Texas Community
Politics and the Penduliun: A Historical Analysis of Whole Language
Expanding Political Opportunities
Shared Cognitions
Mobilization of Indigent Organization Resources
Shifting Response of Other Organized Groups to the Movement
Recommendations for Doing Historical Research
Self-Check Test
Part VI: Applications of Research
17. Evaluation Research
The Role of Evaluation in Education
Relationship between Evaluation and Research
Steps in Program Evaluation
Clarifying the Reasons for an Evaluation
Selecting an Evaluation Model
Example of Collaborative Evaluation
Identifying Stakeholders
Deciding What Is to Be Evaluated
Program Goals
Program Resources and Procedures
Program Management
Program Outcomes
Identifying Evaluation Questions
Developing an Evaluation Design and Time Line
Collecting and Analyzing Evaluation Data
Reporting Evaluation Results
Criteria for Effective Evaluation Research
Program Evaluation Standards
Personnel Evaluation Standards
Other Standards for Educational Evaluation
Quantitative Approaches to Evaluation
Evaluation of the Individual
Objectives-Based Evaluation
Needs Assessment
Example of Needs Assessment
Limitations of Needs Assessment
Context-Input-Process-Product (CIPP) Evaluation
Qualitative Approaches to Evaluation
Responsive Evaluation
Example of Responsive tvaiuation
Emergent Design
Fourth-Generation Evaluation
Quasi-Legal Models of Evaluation
Adversary Evaluation
Judicial Evaluation
Expertise-Based Evaluation
Educational Connoisseurship and Criticism
Example of Expertise-Based Evaluation 1
Empowerment Evaluation
Example of Empowerment Evaluation
Educational Research and Development
R&D Model
Formative and Summative Evaluation
Example of R&D Evaluation
Recommendations for Doing an Evaluation Research Study
or an R&D Evaluation
Self-Check Test
18. Action Research
Characteristics of Action Research
Purposes for Conducting Action Research
Personal Purposes for Action Research
Professional Purposes for Action Research
Political Purposes for Action Research
Cyclical Nature of Action Research
Focus on Data Collection and Analysis
as a Basis for Action
Focus on Reflection
Stages of Action Research
Selecting a Focus
Taking Action
Collecting Data
Analyzing and Interpreting the Data
Continuing or Modifying Action
Reflection
Reporting Action Research
Credibility and Trustworthiness of Action Reseeirch
Outcome Validity
Process Validity
Democratic Validity
Catalytic Validity
Dialogic Validity
Reducing Discrepancies between Practitioners' Espoused Theories
and Theorles-ln-Action
Practitioner-Academic Collaboration
Ethical Issues In Action Research
Recommendations for Doing Action Research
Self-Check Test