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Contributors<br/>Preface and Acknowledgements<br/>Abbreviations<br/>Introduction<br/>I. A New Regulatory Field<br/>II. Goals and Basic assumptions<br/>III. The Current Legal Status of Plant Genetic Resources<br/>IV. Policy Measures Submitted<br/>A. A Multiple Approach Required<br/>B. The Protection of Assignable TK (TIP Rights)<br/>C. Reform and Novel Uses of Existing IPRs: Patents and Plant Breeder's Rights<br/>D. The Protection of Non-Assignable TK and PGRFA<br/>E. Support of Trade in Products Resulting from the Use of Traditional PGRFA and TK<br/>F. Tariff Measures Facilitating the Exportation of TK related Products<br/>V. Conclusions<br/>Part 1 GENERAL FRAMEWORK<br/>Chapter 1.Problem and Goals<br/>Susette Biber-Klemm and Danuta Szymura Berglas<br/>I.. Biodiversity and Traditional Knowledge: Factual Background and Problems<br/>A. Introduction<br/>B. Biodiversity<br/> 1. Terminology<br/>2. Characteristics of Plant Genetic Resources<br/>3. Distribution and Origin of Biological Diversity<br/>4. The Value of Biological Diversity<br/>5. The Loss of Biological Diversity<br/>6. Conclusion<br/>C. Traditional Knowledge<br/> 1. Introduction<br/>2. Terminology and Characteristics<br/>3. Value of Traditional Knowledge<br/>4. The Loss of Traditional Knowledge<br/>5. Conclusion<br/>D. Conservation and Sustainable Use of Biodiversity and Traditional Knowledge: The <br/>interface with Trade<br/> 1. Introduction<br/>2. Economic Failure as reason for the loss of Biodiversity and TK<br/>3. Supporting Conservation and Sustainable Use of Biodiversity and TK:<br/> Financial Aspects <br/>4. The creation of incentives: The CBD-discussion<br/>5. Conclusion<br/>II. Goals of Instruments and Measures to Protect Traditional Knowledge and Plant <br/>Genetic Resources: Basic Principles and Ethical Reflections<br/>A. Introduction<br/> 1. In General<br/>2. Goals as laid down in international legal instruments concerning genetic <br/> TK resources<br/>B. Equity and Fairness<br/> 1. Introduction<br/>2. Legal sources in the biodiversity context: Conventions and Soft Law<br/>3. Equity<br/>4. Fairness<br/>5. Conclusions<br/>C. Sustainability<br/>General: Term and Interpretation<br/>The Particulars of Biological Diversity and TK with a View to Sustainabale Use and <br/>Development<br/>D. Food security and basic health care<br/> 1. In general: theoretical background<br/>2. Food Security<br/>3. Health Care, Medicinal Care, Traditional Medicine<br/>E Conclusion<br/>Chapter 2.The Current Law of Plant Genetic Resources and Traditional Knowledge<br/> Susan Biber-Klemm, Thomas Cottier, Philippe Cullet and Danuta Szymura <br/>Berglas<br/>I.. Introduction<br/>II. Permanent Sovereignty over Plant Genetic Resources<br/>III. International Agreements and Institutions<br/>A. The Convention on Biological Diversity<br/>B. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture<br/>C. The Law and Policy in the World Trade Organization<br/>1. From GATT to the WTO<br/>2. From Tariffs to Farm Support Levels and Intellectual Property Protection<br/>3. International Dispute Settlement and Enforcement<br/>4. The Agreement on Agriculture<br/>5. The Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures<br/>6. The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights<br/>7. WTO law and genetic resources<br/>D. The International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV)<br/>IV.Selected Regional and National Legal Frameworks*<br/>A. Developing Countries<br/> 1. The African Continent - The OAU Model Legislation<br/>2. Andean region<br/>3. India<br/>B. Developed Countries<br/> 1. Europe<br/>2. United States<br/>3. Australia<br/>Selected Bibliography<br/>Chapter 3 Intellectual Property Rights, Plant Genetic Resources, and Traditional Knowledge<br/>Philippe Cullet, Christophe Germann, Andrea Nascimento and Gloria Pasadilla<br/>I. Introduction<br/>A. Overview<br/>B. Forms of intellectual property protection<br/>C. The functions of intellectual property rights<br/>II.The Protection of TK related to Plant Genetic Resources<br/>A. Definitions<br/>B. Patent Protection<br/>1. Introduction<br/>2. The rationale of patent protection<br/>3. The concepts of invention and the protection of plant varieties<br/>4. Protective criteria<br/>5. Scope and limitations of patent protection<br/>6. Preliminary conclusions on patent protection for holders of traditional knowledge<br/>C. Plant Breeders' Rights<br/>1. Background<br/>2. What are PBRs?<br/>3. Content and Limitation of PBRs<br/>D. Sui Generis Protection Systems<br/>1. Rationale of sui generis Protection<br/>2. Country Examples of Sui Generis Protection<br/>III.Impacts on Existing PGR, Landraces and TK<br/>A. Case Studies<br/>1. The Turmeric Patent<br/>2. The Neem Patents<br/>3. The Kava Case<br/>B. Proposed Solutions<br/>1. Biodiversity Registers<br/>2. Benefit-sharing<br/>3. Local Innovation<br/>C. Problem Analysis<br/>D. Impacts on PGR Diversity<br/>E. Impacts on TK<br/>F. Tension between IPR and Competition<br/>1. Contract Arrangement among Sequential Innovators<br/>2. Some Basic Principles for IPR and Competition Policy<br/>IV.Conclusions<br/>Part II TOWARDS SUI GENERIS RIGHTS<br/>Chapter 4. Origin and Allocation of Traditional Knowledge and Landraces<br/>Part 1: Origin and Allocation of Traditional Knowledge and traditional PGRFA: Basic Questions<br/>Susette Biber-Klemm<br/>I.Introduction<br/>II.Origin and Allocation of Traditional Knowledge<br/>A. Introduction<br/>1. Definition and relevant characteristics<br/>2. Shortcomings of the formal IP-System<br/>B. Types of Traditional Knowledge<br/>C. Degree of publicity: the "Public-Domain" Discussion<br/>D. The question of ownership and origin<br/>1. Origin<br/>E. Summary<br/>III.The Concept of Origin of PGRFA<br/>A. Background and Terminology<br/>1. Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture<br/>2. In-situ on farm conservation<br/>B. Origin<br/>1. The scientific understanding of origin<br/>2. Country of origin according to the CBD<br/>3. Country of Origin in the International Treaty on PGRFA<br/>C. Discussion<br/>D. Conclusion<br/>E. A functional interpretation of origin<br/>1. In general<br/>2. The Criterion of Distinctness<br/>3. Uniformity and Identifiability<br/>4. The Element of Time<br/>F. Conclusion<br/>G. Questions for further research<br/>Part 2: Farmers, Landraces, and Property Rights: Challenges to Allocating Sui Generis <br/>Intellectual Property Rights to Communities over their Varieties<br/>M. Halewood, J.J. Cherfas, J.M.M. Engels, Th. Hazekeamp, T. Hodgkin and J. <br/>Robinson <br/>I.Introduction<br/>II.Historical Evolution of the Concept of Landrace<br/>A. From Nature to Nurture: The Anthropologization of the Landrace<br/>B. Details of Farmers' Innovation: Improving Landraces' Contribution to Livelihoods Is <br/>Not Necessarily Linked to Promoting Their Distinctness, Stability, and Uniformity<br/>III. How the Interplay of Plant Reproduction Systems, Human Uses, and the <br/>Environment Affect the Incidence and Duration of Distinctions between Landraces<br/>A. In-breeders<br/>B. Out-breeders<br/>C. Clones<br/>IV.Assessing Potential Intellectual Property Policy Responses<br/>A. Challenges<br/>B. Hypothetical Case<br/>C. Cautionary Note Regarding Perverse Incentives<br/>D. Converse Situations: When Sui Generis Protections Could Be Feasible<br/>V.Mining Data for Connections between Communities and Ex Situ Collections<br/>A. Data Selection<br/>B. Results<br/>C. Data-Mining Conclusions<br/>D. Collecting Forms, Ethno-Botanical Descriptors<br/>VI.Assessing Possible Policy Responses to the Data-Base Analyses<br/>VII.Conclusion<br/>Chapter 5. A New Generation of IPR for the Protection of Traditional Knowledge in PGR for <br/>Food, Agricultural and Pharmaceutical Uses<br/>Thomas Cottier and Marion Panizzon<br/>I.Abstract<br/>II.Introduction<br/>III.The Strategic Case for Intellectual Property Protection<br/>A. The Legitimacy and Rebalancing of the IPR System<br/>B. The Need to Clarify the Connection between Traditional Knowledge and Existing IPR<br/>C. Competing Interests and Conflicting Legal Concepts<br/>1. The Structure of the Seed Industry<br/>2. PGRFA in Public Domain<br/>3. Linkages to Global Public Goods<br/>IV.Current State of the Law and Efforts Made to Date<br/>A. International Instruments<br/>1. Convention on Biological Diversity and Benefit Sharing (CBD)<br/>2. Plant Variety Protection (UPOV)<br/>3. International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA)<br/>4. The WTO Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights <br/>(TRIPS Agreement) and the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property<br/>5. World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)<br/>B. Recommendations by International Bodies and National Legislation<br/>1. Model Laws<br/>2. Domestic Legislation<br/>C. Conclusions<br/>V.Basic Objections to IPR Protection<br/>A. Innovation v. Traditions<br/>B. Assignable Resources and Communitarian Rights<br/>C. Free Flow and Crop Exchange<br/>D. Destruction of Traditional Ways of Life<br/>E. Conclusion<br/>VI.A New IP Right in Traditional Knowledge<br/>A. Subject Matter<br/>B. Right holders<br/>C. Conditions, Content and Scope of Rights<br/>1. Intellectual Activity<br/>2. The Object and Content of the Right<br/>3. Rights Conferred<br/>D. Duration of Rights<br/>VII.The Creation and Registration of Rights<br/>A. Registration Requirements<br/>B. Opposition Procedures and Judicial Review<br/>VIII.The Interface with Other IP Rights<br/>A. The Complementary Function of Geographical Indications<br/>B. Relation to Plant Breeders' Rights<br/>IX.The Fora for Future Negotiations<br/>X.Conclusions<br/>Chapter 6.Flanking Policies in National and International Law<br/>Susette Biber-Klemm, Philippe Cullet, Christophe Germann, Andrea Nascimento <br/>and Jonathan Curci Staffler<br/>I.Introduction<br/>II.Existing Intellectual Property Rights: Avenues for Further Development<br/>A. Novel Uses of the Patent Model<br/>1. Prior Art, Disclosure and Prior Informed Consent<br/>2. Joint inventorship<br/>3. Traditional Knowledge and Existing Conditions for Patentability<br/>B. Adaptation of the Conditions for Grant of Plant Breeders' Rights<br/>C. Geographical Indications<br/>1. Geographical indications and trademarks<br/>2. Further development of geographical indications <br/>3. Geographical indications and traditional knowledge<br/>4. Case Study: Potential benefits of geographical indications: the Kava Case in the South <br/>Pacific<br/>III. Management and Enforcement of IPR and Traditional PGR: Institutional Design<br/>A. Documentation and Registration<br/>1. Introduction and Question<br/>2. Definitions and Terminology<br/>3. Current discussions<br/>4. Different Emphasis: Examples<br/>5. Registration as a marketing tool?<br/>B. Collecting Societies<br/>1. General considerations<br/>2. Collecting Societies as a possible model<br/>3. Domaine Public Payant<br/>4. Further considerations<br/>C. Clearing House Mechanisms<br/>1. What is a Clearing House Mechanism?<br/>2. CHMs in the realm of TK management: The CBD CHM and the WIPO Platform<br/>3. CHMs to facilitate trade in TK: Examples<br/>4. Analysis<br/>5. Conclusion:<br/>Bibliography<br/>Part III OPTIONS FOR COLLECTIVE AND TRADE POLICY MEASURES<br/>Chapter 7. New Collective Policies<br/>Susette Biber-Klemm, Philippe Cullet and Katharina Kummer Peiry<br/>I.Introduction<br/>II.Farmers' Rights<br/>A. Farmers' Rights under the International Undertaking<br/>B. Farmers' Rights under the International Treaty on PGRFA<br/>C. Farmers' Rights as a Means to Protect Traditional Knowledge<br/>III.Reviewing Access Legislation<br/>A. Introduction<br/>B. Legal Background<br/>1. In General<br/>2. The regulation of the CBD<br/>3. The Regulation of ABS by the IT PGRFA<br/>4. Conclusion and Discussion<br/>C. The ABS system at the interface with markets: issues to consider<br/>1. Introduction<br/>2. Value of PGRFA and TK and the creation of markets<br/>3. Marketing and access legislation<br/>4. Control on the side of the users of the information<br/>5. The designation and integration of holders of TK including capacity-building<br/>D. Conclusions<br/>IV. Financial mechanisms for compensation of non-assignable traditional plant genetic <br/>resources and traditional knowledge<br/>A. The role of a future financial mechanism in the context of access to genetic resources<br/>1. Aims and functions of a future financial mechanism<br/>2. Elements of a future financial mechanism<br/>B. Analysis of existing mechanisms as possible models<br/>1. Financial mechanisms aiming at the provision of assistance to developing and <br/>transitional countries ("assistance funds")<br/>2. Financial mechanisms forming part of a treaty system on civil liability for <br/>environmental damage caused by potentially hazardous activities ("compensation <br/>funds")<br/>3. Mechanisms to provide incentives for implementation under the Kyoto Protocol<br/>4. Relevant work in the framework of the FAO<br/>C. Options for a financial mechanism in the context of access to genetic resources<br/>1. Structure, organization and legal personality<br/>2. Generation of funds, contributors<br/>3. Disbursement of funds, claimants<br/>D. Conclusions and Recommendations<br/>Chapter 8 International Trade Regulation for Plant Genetic Resources and Related Products<br/>Part 1: The Impact on Agricultural Subsidies<br/>Susette Biber-Klemm and Michael Burkhard<br/>I. Introduction<br/>A. General Question<br/>B. Marrakesh Agreements: cross-cutting issues and recent developments<br/>1. Relevance of Topics Environment and Development<br/>2. Doha Declaration and Doha Work-Programme<br/>3. Recent developments: The July package<br/>II. The Agreement of Agriculture and the Maintenance of TK and PGRFA<br/>A Introduction<br/>B. Legal Background<br/>1. The AoA in general<br/>2. Coverage<br/>C. Reform Programme: Mandates and current stage<br/>1. The Negotiation Mandates<br/>2. Doha Declaration and Doha Work Programme: Agriculture<br/>III.The Structure of Agriculture in Developing Countries<br/>A. Terminology<br/>B. Economics of Subsistence Farming<br/>C. Rural-Urban Migration<br/>D. Structures of Agriculture<br/>E. Agriculture and Genetic Erosion in PGRFA<br/>IV.The Impact of Agricultural Export Subsidies and Food Aid on Agrobiodiversity<br/>A. Introduction<br/>B. Economics of Agricultural Export Subsidies and Food Aid<br/>1. Economics of Agricultural Export Subsidies<br/>2. Economic Effects of Food Aid<br/>3. Economic Effects of a Removal of Agricultural Export Subsidies<br/>C. Impact of Agricultural Export Subsidies and Food Aid on Agrobiodiversity: The PLA <br/>Model<br/>D. Impact of Food Aid on Agrobiodiversity<br/>E. Conclusions<br/>F. Summary and Outlook<br/>1. Agricultural Export Subsidies<br/>2. Food Aid<br/>3. Outlook: An Integrated Approach towards Global Multifunctionality<br/>V. Direct Payments<br/>A. Introduction<br/>B. WTO regulation of domestic support: Overview<br/>C. The "Green Box" Measures<br/>D. The development programmes<br/>E. Assessment in view of support of agrobiodiversity<br/>F. The Debates<br/>1. Critique of the present state in general<br/>2. The multifunctionality vs. Food Security debate<br/>G. Discussion and conclusion<br/>Part 2: Enhancing Market Access <br/>Thomas Cottier and Marion Panizzon<br/>I.. Abstract<br/>II. Introduction<br/>III Market Access for Developing Countries in PGR Products<br/>A. Tariffication of Trade Barriers and the Prospects of Tariff Reductions<br/>B. Impact on Traditional Knowledge-based Products<br/>IV. The Prospects of Differential Tariffs for Traditional Knowledge-based Products<br/>A. Special and Differential Treatment<br/>B. The Case of Special and Differential Treatment for TK based Products<br/>1. Recourse to the General System of Preferences (GSP)<br/>2. Adjusting Tariff Schedules and the Harmonized System<br/>3. Limiting Recourse to Trade Remedies against TK based Products<br/>4. Labelling Requirements<br/>V. TK and the TBT and the SPS Agreements<br/>A. Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT Agreement)<br/>1. Product Standards<br/>2. Product Process Methods (PPMs)<br/>B. The Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS <br/>Agreement)<br/>1. Product Standards<br/>2. Product Process Methods (PPMs)<br/>VI The Need for Joint Standard Setting Operations<br/>VII. Non-discrimination Principles of GATT 1994 and Traditional Knowledge<br/>A. Introduction<br/>B. Legal Issues<br/>VIII. The Impact of MFN<br/>IX. The Impact of National Treatment<br/>A. The Narrow Definition of Likeness for Purposes of Taxation<br/>B. The Broader Definition for Regulatory Purposes<br/>C. Assessment<br/>X. Product Process Methods (PPMs) in GATT 1994<br/>A. The State of Affairs<br/>B. Towards a New Deal on PPMs<br/>XI Conclusions<br/> Bibliography<br/>Index |
