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1 INTRODUCTION TO GENETICS<br/>1.1 Genetics Progressed from Mendel to DNA in Less Than a Century<br/>Mendel¿s Work on Transmission of Traits<br/>The Chromosome Theory of Inheritance: Uniting Mendel and Meiosis<br/>Genetic Variation<br/>The Search for the Chemical Nature of Genes: DNA or Protein?<br/>1.2 Discovery of the Double Helix Launched the Era of Molecular Genetics<br/>The Structure of DNA and RNA<br/>Gene Expression: From DNA to Phenotype<br/>Proteins and Biological Function<br/>Linking Genotype to Phenotype: Sickle-Cell Anemia<br/>1.3 Development of Recombinant DNA Technology Began the Era of Cloning<br/>1.4 The Impact of Biotechnology Is Continually Expanding<br/>Plants, Animals, and the Food Supply<br/>Who Owns Transgenic Organisms?<br/>Biotechnology in Genetics and Medicine<br/>1.5 Genomics, Proteomics, and Bioinformatics Are New and Expanding Fields<br/>1.6 Genetic Studies Rely on the Use of Model Organisms<br/>The Modern Set of Genetic Model Organisms<br/>Model Organisms and Human Diseases<br/>1.7 We Live in the ¿Age of Genetics¿<br/>The Nobel Prize and Genetics<br/>Genetics and Society<br/>2 MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS<br/>2.1 Cell Structure Is Closely Tied to Genetic Function<br/>2.2 Chromosomes Exist in Homologous Pairs in Diploid Organisms<br/>2.3 Mitosis Partitions Chromosomes into Dividing Cells<br/>Interphase and the Cell Cycle<br/>Prophase<br/>Prometaphase and Metaphase<br/>Anaphase<br/>Telophase<br/>Cell Cycle Regulation and Checkpoints<br/>2.4 Meiosis Reduces the Chromosome Number from Diploid to Haploid in Germ Cells and Spores<br/>An Overview of Meiosis<br/>The First Meiotic Division: Prophase I<br/>Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase I<br/>The Second Meiotic Division<br/>2.5 The Development of Gametes Varies in Spermatogenesis Compared to Oogenesis<br/>2.6 Meiosis Is Critical to the Successful Sexual Reproduction of All Diploid<br/>Organisms<br/>2.7 Electron Microscopy Has Revealed the Physical Structure of Mitotic and Meiotic Chromosomes<br/>The Synaptonemal Complex<br/>3 MENDELIAN GENETICS<br/>3.1 Mendel Used a Model Experimental Approach to Study Patterns of Inheritance<br/>3.2 The Monohybrid Cross Reveals How One Trait Is Transmitted from Generation to Generation<br/>Mendel¿s First Three Postulates<br/>Modern Genetic Terminology<br/>Mendel¿s Analytical Approach<br/>Punnett Squares<br/>The Testcross: One Character<br/>3.3 Mendel¿s Dihybrid Cross Generated a Unique F2 Ratio<br/>Mendel¿s Fourth Postulate: Independent Assortment<br/>The Testcross: Two Characters<br/>3.4 The Trihybrid Cross Demonstrates that Mendel¿s Principles Apply to Inheritance of Multiple Traits<br/>The Forked-Line Method or Branch Diagram<br/>3.5 Mendel¿s Work Was Rediscovered in the Early Twentieth Century<br/>3.6 The Correlation of Mendel¿s Postulates with the Behavior of Chromosomes Formed the Foundation of Modern Transmission Genetics<br/>The Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance<br/>Unit Factors, Genes, and Homologous Chromosomes<br/>3.7 Independent Assortment Leads to Extensive Genetic Variation<br/>3.8 Laws of Probability Help to Explain Genetic Events<br/>Conditional Probability<br/>The Binomial Theorem<br/>3.9 Chi-Square Analysis Evaluates the Influence of Chance on Genetic Data<br/>Chi-Square Calculations and the Null Hypothesis<br/>Interpreting Probability Values<br/>3.10 Pedigrees Reveal Patterns of Inheritance of Human Traits<br/>Pedigree Conventions<br/>Pedigree Analysis<br/>4 EXTENSIONS OF MENDELIAN GENETICS<br/>4.1 Alleles Alter Phenotypes in Different Ways<br/>4.2 Geneticists Use a Variety of Symbols for Alleles<br/>4.3 Neither Allele Is Dominant in Incomplete, or Partial, Dominance<br/>4.4 In Codominance, the Influence of Both Alleles in a Heterozygote Is Clearly Evident<br/>4.5 Multiple Alleles of a Gene May Exist in a Population <br/>The ABO Blood Groups<br/>The A and B Antigens<br/>The Bombay Phenotype<br/>The white Locus in Drosophila<br/>4.6 Lethal Alleles Represent Essential Genes<br/>Recessive Lethal Mutations<br/>Dominant Lethal Mutations<br/>4.7 Combinations of Two Gene Pairs with Two Modes of Inheritance Modify the 9:3:3:1 Ratio<br/>4.8 Phenotypes Are Often Affected by More Than One Gene<br/>Epistasis<br/>Novel Phenotypes<br/>Other Modified Dihybrid Ratios<br/>4.9 Complementation Analysis Can Determine if Two Mutations Causing a Similar Phenotype Are Alleles<br/>4.10 Expression of a Single Gene May Have Multiple Effects<br/>4.11 X-Linkage Describes Genes on the X Chromosome<br/>X-Linkage in Drosophila<br/>X-Linkage in Humans<br/>4.12 In Sex-Limited and Sex-Influenced Inheritance, an Individual¿s Sex Influences the Phenotype<br/>4.13 Genetic Background and the Environment May Alter Phenotypic Expression<br/>Penetrance and Expressivity<br/>Genetic Background: Suppression and Position Effects<br/>Temperature Effects ¿ An Introduction to Conditional Mutations<br/>Nutritional Effects<br/>Onset of Genetic Expression<br/>Genetic Anticipation<br/>Genomic (Parental) Imprinting<br/>5 CHROMOSOME MAPPING IN EUKARYOTES<br/>5.1 Genes Linked on the Same Chromosome Segregate Together<br/>The Linkage Ratio<br/>5.2 Crossing Over Serves as the Basis for Determining the Distance between Genes in Chromosome Mapping<br/>Morgan and Crossing Over<br/>Sturtevant and Mapping<br/>Single Crossovers<br/>5.3 Determining the Gene Sequence during Mapping Requires the Analysis of Multiple Crossovers<br/>Multiple Exchanges<br/>Three-Point Mapping in Drosophila<br/>Determining the Gene Sequence<br/>A Mapping Problem in Maize<br/>5.4 Interference Affects the Recovery of Multiple Exchanges<br/>5.5 As the Distance between Two Genes Increases, the Results of Mapping Experiments Become Less Accurate<br/>5.6 Drosophila Genes Have Been Extensively Mapped<br/>5.7 Lod Score Analysis and Somatic Cell Hybridization Were Historically Important in Creating<br/>Human Chromosome Maps<br/>5.8 Chromosome Mapping Is Now Possible Using Molecular Analysis of DNA<br/>Gene Mapping Using Annotated Computer Databases<br/>5.9 Crossing Over Involves a Physical Exchange between Chromatids<br/>5.10 Recombination Also Occurs between Mitotic Chromosomes<br/>5.11 Exchanges Occur between Sister Chromatids Too<br/>5.12 Linkage and Mapping Studies Can Be Performed in Haploid Organisms<br/>Gene-to-Centromere Mapping<br/>Ordered versus Unordered Tetrad Analysis<br/>Linkage and Mapping<br/>5.13 Did Mendel Encounter Linkage?<br/>6 GENETIC ANALYSIS AND MAPPING IN BACTERIA AND BACTERIOPHAGES<br/>6.1 Bacteria Mutate Spontaneously and Grow at an Exponential Rate<br/>6.2 Conjugation Is One Means of Genetic Recombination in Bacteria<br/> and Bacteria<br/>Hfr Bacteria and Chromosome Mapping<br/>Recombination in Matings: A Reexamination<br/>The State and Merozygotes<br/>6.3 Rec Proteins Are Essential to Bacterial Recombination<br/>6.4 The F Factors Is an Example of a Plasmid<br/>6.5 Transformation Is Another Process Leading to Genetic Recombination in Bacteria<br/>The Transformation Process<br/>Transformation and Linked Genes<br/>6.6 Bacteriophages Are Bacterial Viruses<br/>Phage T4: Structure and Life Cycle<br/>The Plaque Assay<br/>Lysogeny<br/>6.7 Transduction Is Virus-Mediated Bacterial DNA Transfer<br/>The Lederberg¿Zinder Experiment<br/>The Nature of Transduction<br/>Transduction and Mapping<br/>6.8 Bacteriophages Undergo Intergenic Recombination<br/>Bacteriophage Mutations<br/>Mapping in Bacteriophages<br/>6.9 Intragenic Recombination Occurs in Phage T4<br/>The rII Locus of Phage T4<br/>Complementation by rII Mutations<br/>Recombinational Analysis<br/>Deletion Testing of the rII Locus<br/>The rII Gene Map<br/>7 SEX DETERMINATION AND SEX CHROMOSOMES<br/>7.1 Life Cycles Depend on Sexual Differentiation<br/>Chlamydomonas<br/>Zea mays<br/>Caenorhabditis elegans<br/>7.2 X and Y Chromosomes Were First Linked to Sex Determination Early in the 20th Century<br/>7.3 The Y Chromosome Determines Maleness in Humans<br/>Klinefelter and Turner Syndromes<br/>47,XXX Syndrome<br/>47,XYY Condition<br/>Sexual Differentiation in Humans<br/>The Y Chromosome and Male Development<br/>7.4 The Ratio of Males to Females in Humans Is Not 1.0<br/>7.5 Dosage Compensation Prevents Expression of X-Linked Genes in Humans and Other Mammals<br/>Barr Bodies<br/>The Lyon Hypothesis<br/>The Mechanisms of Inactivation<br/>7.6 The Ratio of X Chromosomes to Sets of Autosomes Determines Sex in Drosophila<br/>Dosage Compensation in Drosophila<br/>Drosophila Mosaics<br/>7.7 Temperature Variation Controls Sex Determination in Reptiles<br/>8 CHROMOSOME MUTATIONS: VARIATION IN CHROMOSOME NUMBER AND ARRANGEMENT<br/>8.1 Variation in the Number of Chromosomes Results from Nondisjunction<br/>8.2 Monosomy, the Loss of a Single Chromosome, May Have Severe Phenotypic Effects<br/>8.3 Trisomy Involves the Addition of a Chromosome to a Diploid Genome<br/>Down Syndrome<br/>Patau Syndrome<br/>Edwards Syndrome<br/>Viability in Human Aneuploidy<br/>8.4 Polyploidy, in Which More Than Two Haploid Sets of Chromosomes Are Present, Is Prevalent in Plants<br/>Autopolyploidy<br/>Allopolyploidy<br/>Endopolyploidy<br/>8.5 Variation Occurs in the Composition and Arrangement of Chromosomes<br/>8.6 A Deletion Is a Missing Region of a Chromosome<br/>Cri-du-Chat Syndrome in Humans<br/>Drosophila Heterozygous for Deficiencies May Exhibit Pseudodominance<br/>8.7 A Duplication Is a Repeated Segment of the Genetic Material<br/>Gene Redundancy and Amplification: Ribosomal RNA Genes<br/>The Bar Mutation in Drosophila<br/>The Role of Gene Duplication in Evolution<br/>8.8 Inversions Rearrange the Linear Gene Sequence<br/>Consequences of Inversions during Gamete Formation<br/>Position Effects of Inversions<br/>Evolutionary Advantages of Inversions<br/>8.9 Translocations Alter the Location of Chromosomal Segments in the Genome<br/>Familial Down Syndrome in Humans<br/>8.10 Fragile Sites in Humans Are Susceptible to Chromosome Breakage<br/>Fragile X Syndrome (Martin¿Bell Syndrome)<br/>9 EXTRANUCLEAR INHERITANCE<br/>9.1 Organelle Heredity Involves DNA in Chloroplasts and Mitochondria<br/>Chloroplasts: Variegation in Four O¿Clock Plants<br/>Chloroplast Mutations in Chlamydomonas<br/>Mitochondrial Mutations: The Case of poky in Neurospora<br/>Petites in Saccharomyces<br/>9.2 Knowledge of Mitochondrial and Chloroplast DNA Helps Explain Organelle Heredity<br/>Organelle DNA and the Endosymbiotic Theory<br/>Molecular Organization and Gene Products of Chloroplast DNA<br/>Molecular Organization and Gene Products of Mitochondrial DNA<br/>9.3 Mutations in Mitochondrial DNA Cause Human Disorders<br/>9.4 Infectious Heredity Is Based on a Symbiotic Relationship between Host Organism and Invader<br/>Kappa in Paramecium<br/>Infective Particles in Drosophila<br/>9.5 In Maternal Effects, the Maternal Genotype Has a Strong Influence during Early Development<br/>Ephestia Pigmentation<br/>Limnaea Coiling<br/>Embryonic Development in Drosophila<br/>10 DNA STRUCTURE AND ANALYSIS<br/>10.1 The Genetic Material Must Exhibit Four Characteristics<br/>10.2 Until 1944, Observations Favored Protein as the Genetic Material<br/>10.3 Evidence Favoring DNA as the Genetic Material Was First Obtained during the Study of Bacteria and Bacteriophages<br/>Transformation: Early Studies<br/>Transformation: The Avery, MacLeod and McCarty Experiment<br/>The Hershey¿Chase Experiment<br/>Transfection Experiments<br/>10.4 Indirect and Direct Evidence Supports the Concept that DNA Is the Genetic Material in Eukaryotes<br/>Indirect Evidence: Distribution of DNA<br/>Indirect Evidence: Mutagenesis<br/>Direct Evidence: Recombinant DNA Studies<br/>10.5 RNA Serves as the Genetic Material in Some Viruses<br/>10.6 Knowledge of Nucleic Acid Chemistry Is Essential to the Understanding of DNA Structure<br/>Nucleotides: Building Blocks of Nucleic Acids<br/>Nucleoside Diphosphates and Triphosphates<br/>Polynucleotides<br/>10.7 The Structure of DNA Holds the Key to Understanding Its Function<br/>Base Composition Studies<br/>X-Ray Diffraction Analysis<br/>The Watson¿Crick Model<br/>10.8 Alternative Forms of DNA Exist<br/>10.9 The Structure of RNA Is Chemically Similar to DNA, but Single Stranded<br/>10.10 Many Analytical Techniques Have Been Useful during the Investigation of DNA and RNA<br/>Absorption of Ultraviolet Light (UV)<br/>Sedimentation Behavior<br/>Denaturation and Renaturation of Nucleic Acids<br/>Molecular Hybridization<br/>Fluorescent in situ Hybridization (FISH)<br/>Reassociation Kinetics and Repetitive DNA<br/>Electrophoresis of Nucleic Acids<br/>11 DNA REPLICATION AND RECOMBINATION<br/>11.1 DNA Is Reproduced by Semiconservative Replication<br/>The Meselson¿Stahl Experiment<br/>Semiconservative Replication in Eukaryotes<br/>Origins, Forks, and Units of Replication<br/>11.2 DNA Synthesis in Bacteria Involves Five Polymerases, as well as Other Enzymes<br/>DNA Polymerase I<br/>Synthesis of Biologically Active DNA<br/>DNA Polymerase II, III, IV, and V<br/>11.3 Many Complex Tasks Must Be Performed during DNA Replication<br/>Unwinding the DNA Helix<br/>Initiation of DNA Synthesis with an RNA Primer<br/>Continuous and Discontinuous Synthesis of Antiparallel Strands<br/>Concurrent Synthesis on the Leading and Lagging Strands<br/>Integrated Proofreading and Error Correction<br/>11.4 A Summary of DNA Replication in Prokaryotes<br/>11.5 Replication in Prokaryotes Is Controlled by a Variety of Genes<br/>11.6 Eukaryotic DNA Synthesis Is Similar to Synthesis in Prokaryotes, but More Complex<br/>Multiple Replication Origins<br/>Eukaryotic DNA Polymerases<br/>11.7 Telomeres Provide Structural Integrity at Chromosome Ends but Are Problematic to Replicate<br/>Replication at the Telomere<br/>11.8 DNA Recombination, Like DNA Replication, Is Directed by Specific Enzymes<br/>11.9 Gene Conversion Is a Consequence of DNA Recombination<br/>12 DNA ORGANIZATION IN CHROMOSOMES<br/>12.1 Viral and Bacterial Chromosomes Are Relatively Simple DNA Molecules<br/>12.2 Supercoiling Facilitates Compaction of the DNA of Viral and Bacterial Chromosomes<br/>12.3 Specialized Chromosomes Reveal Variations in the Organization of DNA<br/>Polytene Chromosomes<br/>Lampbrush Chromosomes<br/>12.4 DNA Is Organized into Chromatin in Eukaryotes<br/>Chromatin Structure and Nucleosomes<br/>High-Resolution Studies of the Nucleosome Core<br/>Heterochromatin<br/>12.5 Chromosome Banding Differentiates Regions along the Mitotic Chromosome<br/>12.6 Eukaryotic Chromosomes Demonstrate Complex Sequence Organization Characterized by Repetitive DNA<br/>Satellite DNA<br/>Centromeric DNA Sequences<br/>Telomeric DNA Sequences<br/>Middle Repetitive Sequences: VNTRs and STRs<br/>Repetitive Transposed Sequences: SINEs and LINEs<br/>Middle Repetitive Multiple-Copy Genes<br/>12.7 The Vast Majority of a Eukaryotic Genome Does Not Encode Functional Genes<br/>13 RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY AND GENE CLONING<br/>13.1 Recombinant DNA Technology Combines Several Laboratory Techniques<br/>13.2 Restriction Enzymes Cut DNA at Specific Recognition Sequences<br/>13.3 Vectors Carry DNA Molecules to Be Cloned<br/>Plasmid Vectors<br/>Lambda (?) Phage Vectors<br/>Cosmid Vectors<br/>Bacterial Artificial Chromosomes<br/>Expressioon Vectors<br/>13.4 DNA Was First Cloned in Prokaryotic Host Cells<br/>13.5 Yeast Cells Are Used As Eukaryotic Hosts for Cloning<br/>13.6 Plant and Animal Cells Can Be Used As Host Cells for Cloning<br/>Plant Cell Hosts<br/>Mammalian Cell Hosts<br/>13.7 The Polymerase Chain Reaction Makes DNA Copies Without Host Cells<br/>Limitations of PCR<br/>Other Applications of PCR<br/>13.8 Recombinant Libraries Are Collections of Cloned Sequences<br/>Genomic Libraries<br/>Chromosome-Specific Libraries<br/>cDNA Libraries<br/>13.9 Specific Clones Can Be Recovered from a Library<br/>Probes Identify Specific Clones<br/>Screening a Library<br/>13.10 Cloned Sequences Can Be Analyzed in Several Ways<br/>Restriction Mapping<br/>Nucleic Acid Blotting<br/>13.11 DNA Sequencing Is the Ultimate Way to Characterize a Clone<br/>14 THE GENETIC CODE AND TRANSCRIPTION<br/>14.1 The Genetic Code [Uses Ribonucleotide Bases as ¿Letters¿]<br/>14.2 Early Studies Established the Basic Operational Patterns of the Code<br/>The Triplet Nature of the Code<br/>The Nonoverlapping Nature of the Code<br/>The Commaless and Degenerate Nature of the Code<br/>14.3 Studies by Nirenberg, Matthaei, and Others Led to Deciphering of the Code<br/>Synthesizing Polypeptides in a Cell-Free System<br/>Homopolymer Codes<br/>Mixed Copolymers<br/>The Triplet Binding Assay<br/>Repeating Copolymers<br/>14.4 The Coding Dictionary Reveals Several Interesting Patterns among the 64 Codons<br/>Degeneracy and the Wobble Hypothesis<br/>The Ordered Nature of the Code<br/>Initiation, Termination, and Suppression<br/>14.5 The Genetic Code Has Been Confirmed in Studies of Phage MS2<br/>14.6 The Genetic Code Is Nearly Universal<br/>14.7 Different Initiation Points Create Overlapping Genes<br/>14.8 Transcription Synthesizes RNA on a DNA Template<br/>14.9 Studies with Bacteria and Phages Provided Evidence for the Existence of mRNA<br/>14.10 RNA Polymerase Directs RNA Synthesis<br/>Promoters, Template Binding, and the s Subunit<br/>Initiation, Elongation, and Termination of RNA Synthesis<br/>14.11 Transcription in Eukaryotes Differs from Prokaryotic Transcription in Several Ways<br/>Initiation of Transcription in Eukaryotes<br/>Recent Discoveries Concerning RNA Polymerase Function<br/>Heterogeneous Nuclear RNA and Its Processing: Caps and Tails<br/>14.12 The Coding Regions of Eukaryotic Genes Are Interrupted by Intervening Sequences<br/>Splicing Mechanisms: Autocatalytic RNAs<br/>Splicing Mechanisms: The Spliceosome<br/>RNA Editing Modifies the Final Transcript<br/>14.13 Transcription Has Been Visualized by Electron Microscopy<br/>15 TRANSLATION AND PROTEINS<br/>15.1 Translation of mRNA Depends on Ribosomes and Transfer RNAs<br/>Ribosomal Structure<br/>tRNA Structure<br/>Charging tRNA<br/>15.2 Translation of mRNA Can Be Divided into Three Steps<br/>Initiation<br/>Elongation<br/>Termination<br/>Polyribosomes<br/>15.3 Crystallographic Analysis Has Revealed Many Details about the Functional Prokaryotic Ribosome<br/>15.4 Translation Is More Complex in Eukaryotes<br/>15.5 The Initial Insight That Proteins Are Important in Heredity Was Provided by the Study of Inborn Errors of Metabolism<br/>Phenylketonuiria<br/>15.6 Studies of Neurospora Led to the One-Gene:One-Enzyme Hypothesis<br/>Analysis of Neurospora Mutants by Beadle and Tatum<br/>Genes and Enzymes: Analysis of Biochemical Pathways<br/>15.7 Studies of Human Hemoglobin Established That One Gene Encodes One Polypeptide<br/>Sickle-Cell Anemia<br/>Human Hemoglobins<br/>15.8 The Nucleotide Sequence of a Gene and the Amino Acid Sequence of the Corresponding Protein Exhibit Colinearity<br/>15.9 Variation in Protein Structure Provides the Basis of Biological Diversity<br/>15.10 Posttranslational Modification Alters the Final Protein Product<br/>15.11 Protein Function in Many Diverse Roles<br/>15.12 Proteins Are Made Up of One or More Functional Domains<br/>Exon Shuffling<br/>The Origin of Protein Domains<br/>16 GENE MUTATION AND DNA REPAIR<br/>16.1 Gene Mutations Are Classified in Various Ways<br/>Spontaneous and Induced Mutations<br/>Classification Based on Location of Mutation<br/>Classification Based on Type of Molecular Change<br/>Classification Based on Phenotypic Effects<br/>16.2 Spontaneous Mutations Arise from Replication Errors and Base Modifications<br/>DNA Replication Errors<br/>Replication Slippage<br/>Tautomeric Shifts<br/>Depurination and Deamination<br/>Oxidative Damage<br/>Transposons<br/>16.3 Induced Mutations Arise from DNA Damage Caused by Chemicals and Radiation<br/>Base Analogs<br/>Alkylating Agents and Acridine Dyes<br/>Ultraviolet Light<br/>Ionizing Radiation<br/>16.4 Genomics and Gene Sequencing Have Enhanced Our Understanding of Mutations in Humans<br/>ABO Blood Groups<br/>Muscular Dystrophy<br/>Fragile X Syndrome, Myotonic Dystrophy, and Huntington Disease<br/>16.5 The Ames Test Is Used to Assess the Mutagenicity of Compounds<br/>16.6 Organisms Use DNA Repair Systems to Counteract Mutations<br/>Proofreading and Mismatch Repair<br/>Postreplication Repair and the SOS Repair System<br/>Photoreactivation Repair: Reversal of UV Damage<br/>Base and Nucleotide Excision Repair<br/>Nucleotide Excision Repair and Xeroderma Pigmentosum in Humans<br/>Double-Strand Break Repair in Eukaryotes<br/>16.7 Geneticists Use Mutations to Identify Genes and Study Gene Function<br/>17 REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION IN PROKARYOTES<br/>17.1 Prokaryotes Regulate Gene Expression in Response to Environmental Conditions<br/>17.2 Lactose Metabolism in E. coli Is Regulated by an Inducible System<br/>Structural Genes<br/>The Discovery of Regulatory Mutations<br/>The Operon Model: Negative Control<br/>Genetic Proof of the Operon Model<br/>Isolation of the Repressor<br/>17.3 The Catabolite-Activating Protein (CAP) Exerts Positive Control over the lac Operon<br/>17.4 Crystal Structure Analysis of Repressor Complexes Has Confirmed the Operon Model<br/>17.5 The Tryptophan (trp) Operon in E. coli Is a Repressible Gene System<br/>Evidence for the trp Operon<br/>17.6 Attenuation Is a Critical Process in Regulation of the trp Operon in E. coli<br/>17.7 TRAP and AT Proteins Govern Attenuation in B. subtilis<br/>17.8 The ara Operon Is Controlled by a Regulator Protein That Exerts Both Positive and Negative Control<br/>18 REGULATION OF GENEEXPRESSION IN EUKARYOTES<br/>18.1 Eukaryotic Gene Regulation Can Occur at Any of the Steps Leading from DNA to Protein Product<br/>18.2 Eukaryotic Gene Expression Is Influenced by Chromosome Organization and Chromatin Modifications<br/>Chromatin Remodeling<br/>DNA Methylation<br/>18.3 Eukaryotic Gene Transcription Is Regulated at Specific Cis-Acting Sites<br/>Promoters<br/>Enhancers and Silencers<br/>18.4 Eukaryotic Transcription Is Regulated by Transcription Factors that Bind to Cis-Acting Sites<br/>The Human Metallothionein IIA Gene: Multiple Cis-Acting Elements and Transcription Factors<br/>Functional Domains of Eukaryotic Transcription Factors<br/>18.5 Activators and Repressors Regulate Transcription by Binding to Cis-acting Sites and Interacting with Other Transcription Factors<br/>Formation of the Transcription Initiation Complex<br/>Interactions of the General Transcription Factors with Transcription Activators<br/>18.6 Gene Regulation in a Model Organism: Inducible Transcription of the GAL Genes of Yeast <br/>18.7 Post-transcriptional Gene Regulation Occurs at All the Steps from RNA Processing to Protein Modification<br/>Alternative Splicing of mRNA<br/>Control of mRNA Stability<br/>18.8 RNA Silencing Controls Gene Expression in Several Ways<br/>RNA Silencing in Biotechnology and Therapy<br/>19 DEVELOPMENTAL GENETICS OF MODEL ORGANISMS<br/>19.1 Developmental Genetics Seeks to Explain How a Differentiated State Develops from Genomic Patterns of Expression<br/>19.2 Evolutionary Conservation of Developmental Mechanisms Can Be Studied Using Model Organisms<br/>Model Organisms in the Study of Development<br/>Analysis of Developmental Mechanisms<br/>Basic Concepts in Developmental Genetics<br/>19.3 Genetic Analysis of Embryonic Development in Drosophila Revealed How the Body Axis of Animals Is Specified<br/>Overview of Drosophila Development<br/>Genetic Analysis of Embryogenesis<br/>19.4 Zygotic Genes Program Segment Formation in Drosophila<br/>Gap Genes<br/>Pair-Rule Genes<br/>Segment Polarity Genes<br/>Segmentation Genes in Mice and Humans<br/>19.5 Homeotic Selector Genes Specify Parts of the Adult Body<br/>Hox Genes in Drosophila<br/>Hox Genes and Human Genetic Disorders<br/>Control of Hox Gene Expression<br/>19.6 Cascades of Gene Action Control Differentiation<br/>19.7 Plants Have Evolved Systems That Parallel the Hox Genes of Animals<br/>Homeotic Genes in Arabidopsis<br/>Evolutionary Divergence in Homeotic Genes<br/>19.8 Cell¿Cell Interactions in Development Are Modeled in C. elegans<br/>Signaling Pathways in Development<br/>The Notch Signaling Pathway<br/>Overview of C. elegans Development<br/>Genetic Analysis of Vulva Formation<br/>Notch Signaling Systems in Humans<br/>19.9 Transcriptional Networks Control Gene Expression in Development<br/>A General Model of a Transcription Network<br/>Transcriptional Networks in Drosophila Segmentation<br/>20 CANCER AND REGULATION OF THE CELL CYCLE<br/>20.1 Cancer Is a Genetic Disease That Arises at the Level of Somatic Cells<br/>What Is Cancer?<br/>The Clonal Origin of Cancer Cells<br/>Cancer As a Multistep Process, Requiring Multiple Mutations<br/>20.2 Cancer Cells Contain Genetic Defects Affecting Genomic Stability, DNA Repair, and Chromatin Modifications<br/>0.3 Cancer Cells Contain Genetic Defects Affecting Cell-Cycle Regulation<br/>The Cell Cycle and Signal Transduction<br/>Cell-Cycle Control and Checkpoints<br/>20.4 Many Cancer-Causing Genes Disrupt Control of the Cell Cycle<br/>The ras Proto-oncogenes<br/>The cyclin D1 and cyclin E Proto-oncogenes<br/>The p53 Tumor Suppressor Gene<br/>The RB1 Tumor Suppressor Gene<br/>20.5 Cancer Cells Metastasize, Invading Other Tissues<br/>20.6 Predisposition to Some Cancers Can Be Inherited<br/>20.7 Viruses Contribute to Cancer in Both Humans and Animals<br/>20.8 Environmental Agents Contribute to Human Cancers<br/>21 GENOMICS, PROTEOMICS, AND BIOINFORMATICS<br/>21.1 Whole-Genome Shotgun Sequencing Is a Widely Used Method for Sequencing and Assembling Entire Genomes<br/>High-Throughput Sequencing<br/>The Clone-by-Clone Approach<br/>Draft Sequences and Checking for Errors<br/>21.2 DNA Sequence Analysis Relies on Bioinformatics Applications and Genome Databases<br/>Annotation to Identify Gene Sequences<br/>Hallmark Characteristics of a Gene Sequence Can Be Recognized During Annotation<br/>21.3 Functional Genomics Attempts to Identify Potential Functions of Genes and Other Elements in a Genome<br/>Predicting Gene and Protein Functions by Sequence Analysis<br/>Predicting Function from Analysis of Protein Domains and Motifs<br/>21.4 The Human Genome Project Reveals Many Important Aspects of Genome Organization in Humans<br/>Origins of the Project<br/>Major Features of the Human Genome<br/>21.5 The ¿Omics¿ Revolution Has Created a New Era of Biological Research Methods<br/>21.6 Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Genomes Display Common Structural and Functional Features and Important Differences<br/>Unexpected Features of Prokaryotic Genomes<br/>Organizational Patterns of Eukaryotic Genomes<br/>The Yeast Genome<br/>The Arabidopsis Genome<br/>The Minimum Genome for Living Cells<br/>21.7 Comparative Genomics Analyzes and Compares Genomes from Different Organisms<br/>The Dog as a Model Organism<br/>The Chimpanzee Genome<br/>The Rhesus Monkey Genome<br/>The Sea Urchin Genome<br/>Evolution and Function of Multigene Families<br/>21.8 Metagenomics Applies Genomics Techniques to Environmental Samples<br/>21.9 Transcriptome Analysis Reveals Profiles of Expressed Genes in Cells and Tissues<br/>21.10 Proteomics Identifies and Analyzes the Protein Composition of Cells<br/>Reconciling the Number of Genes and the Number of Proteins Expressed by a Cell or Tissue<br/>Proteomics Technologies: Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis for Separating Proteins<br/>Proteomics Technologies: Mass Spectrometry for Protein Identification<br/>Identification of Collagen in Tyrannosaurus rex and Mammut americanum<br/>Environment-Induced Changes in the M. genitalium Proteome21.11 Systems Biology Is an Integrated Approach to Study Interactions of All Components of an Organism¿s Cells<br/>22 GENOME DYNAMICS: TRANSPOSONS, IMMUNOGENETICS, AND EUKARYOTIC VIRUSES<br/>22.1 Transposable Elements Are Present in the Genomes of Both Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes<br/>Insertion Sequences<br/>Bacterial Transposons<br/>The Ac¿Ds System in Maize<br/>Mobile Genetic Elements in Peas: Mendel Revisited<br/>Copia Elements in Drosophila<br/>P Element Transposons in Drosophila<br/>Transposable Elements in Humans<br/>22.2 Transposons Use Two Different Methods to Move Within Genomes<br/>DNA Transposons and Transposition<br/>Retrotransposons and Transposition<br/>22.3 Transposons Create Mutations and Provide Raw Material for Evolution<br/>Transposon Silencing<br/>Transposons, Mutations, and Gene Expression<br/>Transposons and Evolution<br/>22.4 Immunoglobulin Genes Undergo Programmed Genome Rearrangements<br/>The Immune System and Antibody Diversity<br/>Immunoglobulin and TCR structure<br/>The Generation of Antibody Diversity and Class Switching<br/>22.5 Eukaryotic Viruses Shuttle Genes Within and Between Genomes<br/>22.6 Retroviruses Move Genes In and Out of Genomes and Alter<br/>Host Gene Expression.<br/>The Retroviral Life Cycle<br/>Retroviral Repercussions for Genome Rearrangement<br/>22.7 Large DNA Viruses Gain Genes by Recombining with Other Host and Viral Genomes<br/>Gene transfer between cellular and viral genomes<br/>Gene transfer between viruses<br/>22.8 RNA Viruses Acquire Host Genes and Evolve New Forms<br/>The Life Cycle of RNA Viruses<br/>Gene Transfer and Genome Variability in RNA Viruses<br/>23 GENOMIC ANALYSIS ¿ DISSECTION OF GENE FUNCTION<br/>23.1 Geneticists Use Model Organisms to Answer Genetic and Genomic Questions<br/>Features of Genetic Model Organisms<br/>Yeast as a Genetic Model Organism<br/>Drosophila as a Genetic Model Organism<br/>The Mouse as a Genetic Model Organism<br/>23.2 Geneticists Dissect Gene Function Using Mutations and Forward Genetics<br/>Generating Mutants with Radiation, Chemicals, and Transposon Insertion<br/>Screening for Mutants<br/>Selecting for Mutants<br/>Defining the Genes<br/>Dissecting Genetic Networks and Pathways<br/>Extending the Analysis: Suppressors and Enhancers<br/>Extending the Analysis: Cloning the Genes<br/>Extending the Analysis: Biochemical Functions<br/>23.3 Geneticists Dissect Gene Function Using Genomics and Reverse Genetics<br/>Genetic Analysis Beginning with a Purified Protein<br/>Genetic Analysis Beginning with a Mutant Model Organism<br/>Genetic Analysis Beginning with the Cloned Gene or DNA Sequence<br/>Genetic Analysis Using Gene-Targeting Technologies<br/>23.4 Geneticists Dissect Gene Function Using RNAi, Functional Genomic, and Systems Biology Technologies<br/>RNAi: Genetics without Mutations<br/>High-Throughput and Functional Genomics Techniques<br/>Gene Expression Microarrays<br/>Genome-Wide Mapping of Protein¿DNA Binding Sites: ChIP-on-Chip<br/>Systems Biology and Gene Networks<br/>24 APPLICATIONS AND ETHICS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING AND BIOTECHNOLOGY<br/>24.1 Genetically Engineered Organisms Synthesize a Wide Range of Biological and Pharmaceutical Products<br/>Transgenic Animal Hosts and Pharmaceutical Products<br/>Recombinant DNA Approaches for Vaccine Production and Transgenic Plants with Edible Vaccines<br/>24.2 Genetic Engineering of Plants Has Revolutionized Agriculture<br/>Transgenic Crops for Herbicide and Pest Resistance<br/>Nutritional Enhancement of Crop Plants<br/>24.3 Transgenic Animals with Genetically Enhanced Characteristics Have the Potential to Serve Important Roles in Agriculture and Biotechnology<br/>24.4 Genetic Engineering and Genomics Are Transforming Medical Diagnosis<br/>Genetic Tests Based on Restriction Enzyme Analysis<br/>Genetic Tests Using Allele-Specific Oligonucleotides<br/>Genetic Testing Using DNA Microarrays and Genome Scans<br/>Genetic Analysis Using Gene Expression Microarrays<br/>Application of Microarrays for Gene Expression and Genotype Analysis of Pathogens<br/>24.5 Genetic Engineering and Genomics Promise New, More Targeted Medical Therapies<br/>Pharmacogenomics and Rational Drug Design<br/>Gene Therapy<br/>24.6 DNA Profiles Help Identify Individuals<br/>DNA Profiling Based on DNA Microsatellites<br/>Terrorism and Natural Disasters Force Development of New Technologies<br/>World Trade Center<br/>South Asian Tsunami<br/>Forensic Applications of DNA Profiling<br/>24.7 Genetic Engineering, Genomics, and Biotechnology Create Ethical, Social, and Legal Questions<br/>Concerns about Genetically Modified Organisms and GM Foods<br/>Genetic Testing and Ethical Dilemmas<br/>The Ethical Concerns Surrounding Gene Therapy<br/>The Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications (ELSI) Program<br/>DNA and Gene Patents<br/>25 QUANTITATIVE GENETICS AND MULTIFACTORIAL TRAITS<br/>25.1 Not All Polygenic Traits Show Continuous Variation<br/>25.2 Quantitative Traits Can Be Explained in Mendelian Terms<br/>The Multiple-Gene Hypothesis for Quantitative Inheritance<br/>Additive Alleles: The Basis of Continuous Variation<br/>Calculating the Number of Polygenes<br/>25.3 The Study of Polygenic Traits Relies on Statistical Analysis<br/>The Mean<br/>Variance<br/>Standard Deviation<br/>Standard Error of the Mean<br/>Covariance<br/>Analysis of a Quantitative Character<br/>25.4 Heritability Values Estimate the Genetic Contribution to Phenotypic Variability<br/>Broad-Sense Heritability<br/>Narrow-Sense Heritability<br/>Artificial Selection<br/>25.5 Twin Studies Allow an Estimation of Heritability in Humans<br/>25.6 Quantitative Trait Loci Can Be Mapped<br/>26 GENETICS AND BEHAVIOR<br/>26.1 Behavioral Differences Between Genetic Strains Can Be Identified<br/>Inbred Mouse Strains: Differences in Alcohol Preference<br/>Emotional Behavior Differences in Inbred Mouse Strains<br/>26.2 Selection Can Establish Genetic Strains with Behavioral Differences<br/>Maze Learning in Rats<br/>Selected Lines for Geotaxis in Drosophila<br/>26.3 Drosophila Is a Model Organism for Behavior Genetics<br/>Genetic Control of Courtship<br/>Dissecting Behavior with Genetic Mosaics<br/>Functional Analysis of the Nervous System<br/>Drosophila Can Learn and Remember<br/>26.4 Human Behavior Has Genetic Components<br/>Single Genes and Behavior: Huntington Disease<br/>A Transgenic Mouse Model of Huntington Disease<br/>Mechanisms of Huntington Disease<br/>Multifactorial Behavioral Traits: Schizophrenia<br/>27 POPULATION GENETICS<br/>27.1 Allele Frequencies in Population Gene Pools Vary in Space and Time<br/>27.2 The Hardy¿Weinberg Law Describes the Relationship between Allele Frequencies and Genotype Frequencies in an Ideal Population<br/>27.3 The Hardy¿Weinberg Law Can Be Applied to Human Populations<br/>Calculating an Allele¿s Frequency<br/>Testing for Hardy¿Weinberg Equilibrium<br/>27.4 The Hardy¿Weinberg Law Can Be Used to Study Multiple Alleles, X-Linked Traits, and Heterozygote Frequencies<br/>Calculating Frequencies for Multiple Alleles in Hardy¿Weinberg Populations<br/>Calculating Frequencies for X-linked Traits<br/>Calculating Heterozygote Frequency<br/>27.5 Natural Selection Is a Major Force Driving Allele Frequency Change<br/>Natural Selection<br/>Fitness and Selection<br/>Selection in Natural Populations<br/>Natural Selection and Quantitative Traits<br/>27.6 Mutation Creates New Alleles in a Gene Pool<br/>27.7 Migration and Gene Flow Can Alter Allele Frequencies<br/>27.8 Genetic Drift Causes Random Changes in Allele Frequency in Small Populations<br/>Founder Effects in Human Populations<br/>Allele Loss during a Bottleneck<br/>27.9 Nonrandom Mating Changes Genotype Frequency but Not Allele Frequency<br/>Coefficient of Inbreeding<br/>Outcomes of Inbreeding<br/>28 EVOLUTIONARY GENETICS<br/>28.1 Speciation Can Occur by Transformation or by Splitting Gene Pools<br/>28.2 Most Populations and Species Harbor Considerable Genetic Variation<br/>Artificial Selection<br/>Variations in Amino Acid Sequence<br/>Variations in Nucleotide Sequence<br/>Explaining the High Level of Genetic Variation in Populations<br/>28.3 The Genetic Structure of Populations Changes across Space and Time<br/>28.4 Defining a Species Is a Challenge for Evolutionary Biology<br/>28.5 Reduced Gene Flow, Selection, and Genetic Drift Can Lead to Speciation<br/>Examples of Speciation<br/>The Minimum Genetic Divergence for Speciation<br/>The Rate of Speciation<br/>28.6 Genetic Differences Can Be Used to Reconstruct Evolutionary History<br/>Constructing Evolutionary Trees from Genetic Data<br/>Molecular Clocks<br/>28.7 Reconstructing Evolutionary History Allows Us to Answer Many Questions<br/>Transmission of HIV<br/>Neanderthals and Modern Humans<br/>Neanderthal Genomics<br/>29 CONSERVATION GENETICS<br/>29.1 Genetic Diversity Is the Goal of Conservation Genetics<br/>Loss of Genetic Diversity<br/>Identifying Genetic Diversity<br/>29.2 Population Size Has a Major Impact on Species Survival<br/>29.3 Genetic Effects Are More Pronounced in Small, Isolated Populations<br/>Genetic Drift<br/>Inbreeding<br/>Reduction in Gene Flow<br/>29.4 Genetic Erosion Threatens Species Survival<br/>29.5 Conservation of Genetic Diversity Is Essential to Species Survival<br/>Ex Situ Conservation: Captive Breeding<br/>Rescue of the Black-Footed Ferret through Captive Breeding<br/>Ex Situ Conservation and Gene Banks<br/>In Situ Conservation<br/>Population Augmentation |
