PART ONE • Basic Research Methods 1
1 General Research Strategies 1
The Field of Lifespan Development 2
Influences on Development 3 • The Field of Lifespan Development: A Summary 4
General Research Methods 4
Initial Planning: The Importance of Theory 4 • Research Designs 6
BOX 1.1 • Using Analog Methods to Study Difficiilt-to-Manipulate Variables 12
Critiquing Designs 13
Controlling Validity Threats 14
The Participants: Today's Problems 14 • The Participants: Tomorrow's Problems 16
The Experimenter 18 • Controlling Threats to External Validity 18
Summary of Validity Threats 19
Developmental Designs 19
Cross-Sectional Designs 19 • Longitudinal Designs 21
Time-Lag Designs 23 • Modified Developmental Designs 23
Developmental Designs and Methods 25 • Summary of Developmental Designs 25
Methods of Data Collection 26
Data-Collection Strategies 1: Addressing "How" 26 • Data-Collection Strategies 11:
Addressing "Good" 29 • Summary of Data-Collection Methods 30
Chapter Summary 30
Research Navigator™ Exercise 1: Identifying Introductory Terms 31
Research Navigator^^' Exercise 2: The Scientific. Applied, and Collaborative
Nature of the Field 32
2 Participants, Researchers, and Research Settings 33
Sampling and Recruitment 34
Sampling 34 • Sampling Diricrent Age Groups 36
BOX 2.1 • (/.v/'/jg Multiple Sampling Strategies to Obtain Sample Diversity 37
Recruilmenl 38 • Summar>' of Sampling and Recruitment Methods 39
Ethical Issues in Human Development Research 40
The Institutional Review Board (IRB) 40 • Informed Consent 41 • Risks and
Benefits 43 • Confidentiality 44 • Vulnerable Populations 44
Summary of Ethical Issues 45
BOX 2.2 • The Effects of Peer-Reputation Measures 46
The Experimenter 46
Standardization 47 • Experimenter Bias 48 • Additional Sources of Subject
Reactivity 48
Research Settings 49
Common Research Settings 50 • Obtaining Parental Permission 52
BOX 2.3 • The Neighborhood Walk 55
BOX 2.4 • Emerging Rules for Internet Research 57
Summary of Research Settings 58
Chapter Summary 59
Re.search Navigator'-'^' Exercise: identifying Sampling, Recruiting, and
Consent Procedures 60
PART TWO • Research Methods in Infant Development 61
3 Newborn and Biobehavioral Assessment 61
Major Methodological Issues 62
Sampling and Recruitment 62 • The Importance of Infant State 64
Working with Vulnerable Infants 64 • Summary of Methodological Issues 68
Neonatal Assessment 68
Common Perinatal Screening Strategies 69 • Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale
(NBAS) 70 • Additional Behavioral-Assessment Scales 72
BOX 3.1 • NBAS Training as an InteiTention 73
Summary of Newborn Assessment 74
State Regulation and Arousal 74
Infant State Assessment 75
BOX 3.2 • Using the "Breaihing Bear" to Assist the Stale
Regulation of Premature Infants 78
A.ssessmeni of Infant Crying 78 • Physiological Indices of Arousal and Regulation 79
Temperament 81 • Summary of State Regulation and Arousal Assessment 83
BOX 3.3 • Born Too Shy? A Longitudinal Study of Infant Reactivity 84
Growth and Motor Development 84
Physical Growth 85
Motor Development 86
Summary of Growth and Motor Development 87
Chapter Summary 88
Re.search Navigator"" Exerci.se; Read a Real Sad Study—The As.sessment of Infant Crying 89
4 Assessing Infant Mental Abilities 90
Assessment of Infant Learning and Information Processing 90
Habituation 91 • Expectancy Formation 92
BOX 4.1 • Physiological Measures to Tap Infant Learning 93
Instrumental Conditioning 95 • Object-Hiding and Deferred-Imitation
Paradigms 96 • Summary of Infant Learning/Information-Processing
Assessment 97
Infant Sensation and Perception 97
Touch 97
BOX 4.2 • When's a Touch Too Much? Infant Massage Therapy 98
Chemical Sensation: Olfaction and Taste 99 • Visual Perception 102
Auditory Perception 106 • Cross-Modal Transfer 108 • Summary of Infant
Sensation and Perception 108
Cognition 108
Object Concept Formation 109 • Categorization 111 • Space, Time, and
Number 1 13 * Summary of Infant Cognition Methods 115
Testing Infant Mental Development 116
Bayley Scales of Infant Development 1 16 • Battelle Developmental
Inventory (BDl) 1 18 • Summary of Infant Tests of Mental Development 119
Play A ssessment 119
Methodological Considerations 1 19 • Infant Free-Play As.sessment.s 120
Elicited-Play Assessments 122 • Summary of Play Assessment 123
Chapter Summary 123
Research Navigator' Exercise; Object Permanence Methods 124
5 Assessing Infant Socioeniotional Development 125
Capturing Early Emotional Development 125
Assessing Basic Infant Emotions 126
Cognitive Maturity 126 • Emotional Elicilors 128 • Measuring Emotional
Expression and Slates 129
BOX 5.1 • Facial Expressions in Infants Across Three Cultures 133
Summary of Early Emotional Development 136
Assessing Emotion Regulation 136
Definition and Basic Measurement Strategies 136 • Predictors of Emotion
Regulation 137 • Summary of Emotion-Regulation Assessment 142
Assessing Infant Attachment 142
Definitional and Theoretical Issues 142 • The Strange Situation 144
BOX 5.2 • Modifying the Strange Situation 145
Attachment Behavior Q-Set 148 • Variables that Predict Attachment Security
or Insecurity 150
The Adult Attachment Interview 150
BOX 5.3 • Is Attachment Security Universally Valued? 151
Adult Attachment Interview: A Brief Overview 151
Associations with Infant Attachment and Caregiver Sensitivity 152
Frightening or Frightened Caregiver Behavior 154
Summary of Adult Attachment Interview 155
Chapter Summary 155
Research Navigator' Exercise: Infant Attachment 156
PART THREE • Research Methods in Child Development 157
6 Assessing Cognitive Processes in Children 157
Assessing Cognition I: Piagetian Techniques 158
Piaget s Tlieory: A Briel Overview 158 • An Introduction to Piagetian Methods 160
Summary of Piagetian Theory and Tasks 164
Assessing Cognition II: Recent Techniques 164
Alteration of Task Requirements and Training 165
Assessing Domain-Specific Knowledge 167 • Assessing Theory of Mind 168
Assessment of Sociodramatic Play 169 • Conclusions and Piaget's Legacy 171
BOX 6.1 • The Museum as a Research Context 173
Assessing Information Processing in Children 174
Major Components of the Information-Processing System 174
Assessing Information-Processing Components and Capabilities 175
Information-Processing Speed 176 • Episodic Buffer "Space" 178
Assessing the Efficiency of Working Memoiy 178 • Assessing Retrieval Strategies 184
Summary of Information-Processing Methods 186
BOX 6.2 • Assessing Eyewitness Recall in Children 187
Chapter Summary 188
Research Navigator^^''' Exercise; Working Memory in Children 189
7 Assessing Child Intellect and Language 190
Assessing Child Intellect 190
Group-Administered Intelligence Tests 191 • Individual Tests of Intelligence 192
Reliability and Validity of Intelligence Tests 197 • Assessing "Total" Intelligence 198
Assessing Child Intellect; A Summary 200
BOX 7.1 • Does Television-Viewing Warp Thinking? 200
Language Assessment 202
Types of Language Assessments 202 • Language Development; A Very Brief
Landscape 203 • Major Considerations Regarding Language Assessment 205
BOX 7.2 • Talking to Myself: The Assessment of Private Speech 207
Screening Infants and Children for Communicative Abilities 207 • Comprehensive.
Standardized Language Tests 208 • Comprehensive Assessment of Language in
Naturali.stic Settings 211 • Summary of Language A.ssessment 217 • Assessing the
Cognitive and Linguistic Environments of Children 217
Assessing Adult Mentorship Behavior 218
Beyond the Parent-Child Dyad 219 • Assessing Learning and Cognitive Environments:
A Summary 220
Chapter Summary 220
Research Navigator™ Exercise; Intelligence in Children 221
8 Assessing Social Development in Children 222
Obtaining Consistent, Accurate Data from Children 222
Are Children Good Informants? 223
BOX 8.1 • How to Inten'iew Children 224
The Use of Child Informants; A Summary 225
Assessing Self-Representation and Self-Esteem 225
Assessing Self-Representation 225 • Assessing Self-Esteem 228 • Summary of
Self-Assessment 230
Assessing Gender-Related Thinking and Behavior in Children 230
Gender-Schema Theory 231 • Sex As an Independent Variable 231 • A.ssessing
Gender-Related Attitudes and Preferences 232 • Assessing Gender Constancy and Gender
Ideniily 234 • Assessing Gencler-Rclaled Behavior 236 • Summary of
Gender-Related Assessments 237
Assessing Prosocial Reasoning and Behavior 237
Assessing Perspective Taking 237 • Assessing Moral Reasoning, Distributive Justice,
and Social Conventions 241 • Assessing Pro.social Behavior 246 • Assessing
Empathy and Sympathy 247
BOX 8.2 • Assessing Aggression in Context 248
Assessing Prosocial Reasoning and Behavior: A Summary 250
Assessing Relationships with Others 250
A.ssessing Child-Caregiver Attachment 251 • A.s.sessing Peer
Relationships 253 • Assessing Relationships with Others: A Summary 256
Chapter Suntniary 256
Research Navigator'''^' Exercise: Bullies and Victims 257
PART FOUR • Research Methods in Adolescent Development 259
9 Assessing Adolescent Development I: Biological, Cognitive,
and Social Changes 259
Understanding Adolescent Development: A Brief Overview 260
A Contemporary Framework 260
Understanding Adolescent Development: A Summary 262
Assessing Pnbertal Development 263
Assessing Hormonal Concentrations 263
BOX 9,1 • An Evcnt-Sompling Method for Documenting Mood Changes 264
Assessing Pubertal Change and Status 265 • Measuring Pubertal Development:
A Summary 268
Measuring Cognitive Changes in Adolescence 268
Piaget's Perspective on Adolescent Thought 269
BOX 9.2 • Linking Social and Cognitive Development 272
Piagetian Theory and Methods: A Summary 273 • Assessing Adolescent Information
Processing 274 • Summary of Cognitive Assessment 277
Assessing Social Change 111
Social Changes in the Family Context 278 • As.sessing Social Changes in the
Peer Group 284 • Assessing Adolescent-Adult Transitions 286 • Assessing Social
Changes: A Summary 289
Chapter Summary 289
Research Navigator^''' Exercise: Adolescents and Culture 290
10 Assessing Adolescent Development II: The Developmental
Outcomes 291
Attachment and Intimacy 292
Attachment 292 • Intimacy 296 • Some Remaining Questions
Assessing Attachment and Intimacy: A Summary 298
Autonomy 298
Emotional Autonomy 299 • Behavioral Autonomy 300
305
Value
Autonomy 301
Some Conclusions About Autonomy Assessment
Identity 306
Erikson's Theory: A Brief Overview 306 • Identity: Additional Methodolooical and
Theoretical Issues 307
BOX 10.1 • Is Erikson's Tlieoiy Developmeiitally Valid? 308
Some Conclusions Regarding Identity Assessment 311
Achievement 311
Assessing Educational Achievement 311 • As.sessing Occupational Aspirations
Achievement: A Summary 318
Sexuality 319
Locating Research Contexts and Samples 319 • What to Assess? 320 • Some
Remaining Methodological and Theoretical Issues
C
oncluding Thou"hts 322
Chapter Summary 322
Research Navigator"'' Exercise: Adolescents and Sex
297
321 • A.ssessing Sexuality: Some
PART FIVE • Research Methods in Adult Development and Aging
11 Methodological Issues in Adult Development Research I:
Biological and Cognitive Changes 325
Methodological Issues Facing Adult Developmentalists 326
What Innucnces Development? 326 • Sampling 327 •
Quality 328 • Summary 329
Assessing Biological and Health Ramifications of Aging 330
The Biology of Aging: Methodological Considerations 330 •
Risk 332 • Summary 336
Stress and Coping: Methodological Issues 337
Stress: Definitional and Methodological Issues 337
Stress Outcomes 341 • The Assessment of Coping 341
BOX 11.1 • Parents are Hassled: No Kidding Around 341
Summary 344
323
325
Maximizing Data
Health, Disea.se, and Health
3
16
Adult Cognition 344
Inielligence 344
BOX 11.2 • Can We Reverse Cognitive Decline? 347
Information Processing and Memory 348 • Qualitative Cognitive Changes 354
Summary 359
Chapter Summary 359
Research Navigator'^' Exercise: Stress and Coping 360
12 Methodological Issues in Adult Development Research II:
Personality and Social Processes 361
Methodological Approaches to Personality Development 361
Trail Theory and Research 362
BOX 12.1 • Assessing the Personalities of Children 364
Stage Theories of Personality 364
Summary 366
Assessing the Context of Marriage 366
Marital Behavior 367 • Marital Cognitions 370
Marital Quality 372 • Summary 372
Methodological Issues in Parenting Research 373
What Child Outcomes Should I Predict? 374 • Parental Emotional Functioning 374
Parental Cognitions 377 • Parenting Styles and Practices 381 • Summary 385
Grandparenting and Intergenerational Relationships 385
The Theoretical Influence of Grandparents 385
BOX 12.2 • The Intergenerational Effects of Parenting and
Attachment 387
Variables That Influence Grandparent-Grandchild Relationships 387 • Methodological
Issues in Caregiving 389 • Summary 391
Career Development: Methodological and Assessment Issues 391
The Adult Worker: Methodological Issues 391 • Theories of Career Development 393
Assessing Career Development 394 • Assessing Career-Development
Outcomes 395 • Summary 396